Endemicity and evolutionary value: a study of Chilean endemic vascular plant genera

Drivers of plant diversity, community composition, functional traits, and soil processes along an alpine gradient in the central Chilean Andes

High alpine regions are threatened but understudied ecosystems that harbor diverse endemic species, making them an important biome for testing the role of environmental factors in driving functional trait-mediated community assembly processes. We tested the hypothesis that plant community assembly along a climatic and elevation gradient is influenced by shifts in habitat suitability, which drive plant functional, phylogenetic, and spectral diversity. In a high mountain system (2400-3500 m) Región Metropolitana in the central Chilean Andes (33°S, 70°W). We surveyed vegetation and spectroscopic reflectance (400-2400 nm) to quantify taxonomic, phylogenetic, functional, and spectral diversity at five sites from 2400 to 3500 m elevation. We characterized soil attributes and processes by measuring water content, carbon and nitrogen, and net nitrogen mineralization rates. At high elevation, colder temperatures reduced available soil nitrogen, while at warmer, lower elevations, soil moisture was lower. Metrics of taxonomic, functional, and spectral alpha diversity peaked at mid-elevations, while phylogenetic species richness was highest at low elevation. Leaf nitrogen increased with elevation at the community level and within individual species, consistent with global patterns of increasing leaf nitrogen with colder temperatures. The increase in leaf nitrogen, coupled with shifts in taxonomic and functional diversity associated with turnover in lineages, indicate that the ability to acquire and retain nitrogen in colder temperatures may be important in plant community assembly in this range. Such environmental filters have important implications for forecasting shifts in alpine plant communities under a warming climate.

Angiosperm phylogenetic diversity is lower in Africa than South America

Although originating from a common Gondwanan flora, the diversity and composition of the floras of Africa and South America have greatly diverged since continental breakup of Africa from South America now having much higher plant species richness. However, the phylogenetic diversity of the floras and what this tells us about their evolution remained unexplored. We show that for a given species richness and considering land surface area, topography, and present-day climate, angiosperm phylogenetic diversity in South America is higher than in Africa. This relationship holds regardless of whether all climatically matched areas or only matched areas in tropical climates are considered. Phylogenetic diversity is high relative to species richness in refugial areas in Africa and in northwestern South America, once the gateway for immigration from the north. While species richness is strongly influenced by massive plant radiations in South America, we detect a pervasive influence of historical processes on the phylogenetic diversity of both the South American and African floras.

Global patterns of taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity of flowering plants: Biodiversity hotspots and coldspots

Species diversity of angiosperms (flowering plants) varies greatly among regions. Geographic patterns of variation in species diversity are shaped by the interplay of ecological and evolutionary processes. Here, using a comprehensive data set for regional angiosperm floras across the world, we show geographic patterns of taxonomic (species) diversity, phylogenetic diversity, phylogenetic dispersion, and phylogenetic deviation (i.e., phylogenetic diversity after accounting for taxonomic diversity) across the world. Phylogenetic diversity is strongly and positively correlated with taxonomic diversity; as a result, geographic patterns of taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity across the world are highly similar. Areas with high taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity are located in tropical regions whereas areas with low taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity are located in temperate regions, particularly in Eurasia and North America, and in northern Africa. Similarly, phylogenetic dispersion is, in general, higher in tropical regions and lower in temperate regions. However, the geographic pattern of phylogenetic deviation differs substantially from those of taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic dispersion. As a result, hotspots and coldspots of angiosperm diversity identified based on taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic dispersion are incongruent with those identified based on phylogenetic deviations. Each of these metrics may be considered when selecting areas to be protected for their biodiversity.

Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry and Biological Activities of Native Chilean Plants

The native flora of Chile has unique characteristics due to the geographical situation of the country, with the vast desert in the North, Patagonia in the South, the Andean Mountains on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west. This exclusivity is reflected in high concentrations of phytochemicals in the fruits and leaves of its native plants. Some examples are Aristotelia chilensis (Molina), Stuntz (maqui), Berberis microphylla G. Forst. (calafate), Peumus boldus Molina (boldo), Ribes magellanicum Poir. (Magellan currant), Ugni molinae Turcz. (murtilla), Rubus geoides Sm. (miñe miñe), Drimys winteri J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. (canelo), Luma apiculata (DC.) Burret (arrayán) distributed throughout the entire Chilean territory. Some of these Chilean plants have been used for centuries in the country's traditional medicine. The most recent studies of phytochemical characterization of parts of Chilean plants show a wide spectrum of antioxidant compounds, phenolic components, terpenoids and alkaloids, which have shown biological activity in both in vitro and in vivo studies. This manuscript covers the entire Chilean territory characterizing the phytochemical profile and reporting some of its biological properties, focusing mainly on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, chemopreventive and cytotoxic activity, and potential against diabetes, metabolic syndrome and gastrointestinal disorders.

A relic of the past: current genetic patterns of the palaeoendemic tree Nothofagus macrocarpa were shaped by climatic oscillations in central Chile

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The Mediterranean-type forest of central Chile is considered a 'biodiversity hotspot' and a relic of a wider ancient distribution produced by past climatic oscillations. Nothofagus macrocarpa, commonly known as 'roble de Santiago', is a threatened palaeoendemic of this forest, poorly represented in the protected area system. This tree has been repeatedly misidentified as the sister species N. obliqua, which has affected its recognition and protection. Only a few populations of N. macrocarpa remain within a matrix of intensive land use that has been affected by recent forest fires. We tested the hypothesis that current populations of N. macrocarpa are a relic state of a previously widespread range, with the aim of contributing to its identification, its biogeographical history and the design of conservation measures using genetic information.

METHODS

We analysed remnant N. macrocarpa forests using nuclear (nDNA) and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequences, conducted phylogenetic and phylogeographical analyses to reconstruct its biogeographical history, and assessed microsatellites [simple sequence repeats (SSRs)] to determine contemporary patters of diversity within and among all remnant populations. We also examined the degree of past, current and potential future isolation of N. macrocarpa populations using ecological niche models (ENMs).

KEY RESULTS

The species N. macrocarpa was confirmed by nDNA sequences, as previously suggested by chromosomal analysis. Small isolated populations of N. macrocarpa exhibited moderate to high genetic diversity according to SSRs. cpDNA analysis revealed a marked past latitudinal geographical structure, whereas analysis of SSRs did not find such current structure. ENM analyses revealed local expansion-contraction of the N. macrocarpa range during warmer periods, particularly in the northern and central ranges where basal-most cpDNA haplotypes were detected, and recent expansion to the south of the distribution.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic patterns confirm that N. macrocarpa is a distinct species and suggest a marked latitudinal relic structure in at least two evolutionarily significant units, despite contemporary among-population gene flow. This information must be considered when choosing individuals (seeds and/or propagules) for restoration purposes, to avoid the admixture of divergent genetic stocks.

Synopsis of Schizanthus Ruiz & Pav. (Solanaceae), a genus endemic to the southern Andes

We present a taxonomic synopsis of the South American genus Schizanthus Ruiz & Pav. (Solanaceae), within which we recognise seventeen taxa (14 species with three infraspecific taxa). The genus is mainly distributed in Chile between the coast of the Atacama Desert and the southern temperate forests, while two species occur in the Argentinian Provinces of Mendoza and Neuquén. This taxonomic treatment is based on the analysis of herbarium specimens from 30 different herbaria. For each accepted species we provide details of type specimens and synonymy, key characters, habitat, distribution information and presence in public or private protected areas. We also incorporate a list of representative localities from examined material. We here described three new taxa: Schizanthus porrigens Graham ex Hook. subsp. borealis V.Morales & Muñoz-Schick, subsp. nov., Schizanthus carlomunozii V.Morales & Muñoz-Schick, sp. nov. and its variety Schizanthus carlomunozii var. dilutimaculatus V.Morales & Muñoz-Schick, var. nov., all of them from the coast of Coquimbo Region. We also recognise Schizanthus litoralis Phil. var. humilis (Lindl.) V.Morales & Muñoz-Schick, comb. nov., as a new combination.

Description of Onthophagus humboldti and Uroxys bonplandi, two new scarab beetles (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae, Scarabaeinae) from Costa Rica, with notes on tropical mountain brachyptery and endemicity

Two new endemic species of scarab beetles are described from Costa Rica, Onthophagushumboldtisp. nov. and Uroxysbonplandisp. nov.Onthophagushumboldtisp. nov. is also the tenth brachypterous Onthophagus species to be described worldwide, representing also a case of extreme brachyptery in Onthophagini. Illustrations for both new species, as well as marking differences with closely related species are included. Maps showing the distribution of the new species, as well as the distribution of brachypterous and endemic scarab-beetle species for Costa Rica are presented and discussed. The Cordillera de Talamanca represents an area where Scarabaeinae (four genera) show very high known levels of brachypterism in Mesoamerica. A reconstruction of the montane environment in the Cordillera de Talamanca during the Last Glacial Maximum (~24 ka) is analyzed, in order to try to understand a possible historical biogeography model that might promote high levels of brachypterism in scarab-beetles. The present study supports previous proposals that brachyptery is correlated with stable environments associated with deeply incised valleys. Tropical mountain ranges are also identified as having more endemics than lowland rain forests, contradicting accepted wisdom. Lastly, a mitochondrial DNA analysis supports the existence of the Onthophagusdicranius and the O.clypeatus species-groups as two well-defined and closely related branches.

Spatial phylogenetics of the vascular flora of Chile

Current geographic patterns of biodiversity are a consequence of the evolutionary history of the lineages that comprise them. This study was aimed at exploring how evolutionary features of the vascular flora of Chile are distributed across the landscape. Using a phylogeny at the genus level for 87% of the Chilean vascular flora, and a geographic database of sample localities, we calculated phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE), relative PD (RPD), and relative PE (RPE). Categorical Analyses of Neo- and Paleo-Endemism (CANAPE) were also performed, using a spatial randomization to assess statistical significance. A cluster analysis using range-weighted phylogenetic turnover was used to compare among grid cells, and with known Chilean bioclimates. PD patterns were concordant with known centers of high taxon richness and the Chilean biodiversity hotspot. In addition, several other interesting areas of concentration of evolutionary history were revealed as potential conservation targets. The south of the country shows areas of significantly high RPD and a concentration of paleo-endemism, and the north shows areas of significantly low PD and RPD, and a concentration of neo-endemism. Range-weighted phylogenetic turnover shows high congruence with the main macrobioclimates of Chile. Even though the study was done at the genus level, the outcome provides an accurate outline of phylogenetic patterns that can be filled in as more fine-scaled information becomes available.