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Morrison AI, Mikula AM, Spiekstra SW, de Kok M, Affandi AJ, Roest HP, van der Laan LJW, de Winde CM, Koning JJ, Gibbs S, Mebius RE. An Organotypic Human Lymph Node Model Reveals the Importance of Fibroblastic Reticular Cells for Dendritic Cell Function. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2024; 21:455-471. [PMID: 38114886 PMCID: PMC10987465 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-023-00609-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human lymph node (HuLN) models have emerged with invaluable potential for immunological research and therapeutic application given their fundamental role in human health and disease. While fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) are instrumental to HuLN functioning, their inclusion and recognition of importance for organotypic in vitro lymphoid models remain limited. METHODS Here, we established an in vitro three-dimensional (3D) model in a collagen-fibrin hydrogel with primary FRCs and a dendritic cell (DC) cell line (MUTZ-3 DC). To study and characterise the cellular interactions seen in this 3D FRC-DC organotypic model compared to the native HuLN; flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and cytokine/chemokine analysis were performed. RESULTS FRCs were pivotal for survival, proliferation and localisation of MUTZ-3 DCs. Additionally, we found that CD1a expression was absent on MUTZ-3 DCs that developed in the presence of FRCs during cytokine-induced MUTZ-3 DC differentiation, which was also seen with primary monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs). This phenotype resembled HuLN-resident DCs, which we detected in primary HuLNs, and these CD1a- MUTZ-3 DCs induced T cell proliferation within a mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR), indicating a functional DC status. FRCs expressed podoplanin (PDPN), CD90 (Thy-1), CD146 (MCAM) and Gremlin-1, thereby resembling the DC supporting stromal cell subset identified in HuLNs. CONCLUSION This 3D FRC-DC organotypic model highlights the influence and importance of FRCs for DC functioning in a more realistic HuLN microenvironment. As such, this work provides a starting point for the development of an in vitro HuLN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew I Morrison
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aleksandra M Mikula
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sander W Spiekstra
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael de Kok
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alsya J Affandi
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henk P Roest
- Department of Surgery, Erasmus MC Transplant Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Dr. Molewaterplein 40, 3015GD, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Luc J W van der Laan
- Department of Surgery, Erasmus MC Transplant Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Dr. Molewaterplein 40, 3015GD, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte M de Winde
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jasper J Koning
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susan Gibbs
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department Oral Cell Biology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Reina E Mebius
- Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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2
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Park SM, Chen CJJ, Mathy JE, Lin SCY, Martin RCW, Mathy JA, Dunbar PR. Seven-colour multiplex immunochemistry/immunofluorescence and whole slide imaging of frozen sections. J Immunol Methods 2023:113490. [PMID: 37172777 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2023.113490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Multiplex Immunochemistry/Immunofluorescence (mIHC/IF) aims to visualise multiple biomarkers in a single tissue section and is especially powerful when used on slide scanners coupled with digital analysis tools. mIHC/IF is commonly employed in immuno-oncology to characterise features of the tumour microenvironment (TME) and correlate them with clinical parameters to guide prognostication and therapy. However, mIHC/IF can be applied to a wide range of organisms in any physiological or disease context. Recent innovation has extended the number of markers that can be detected using slide scanners well beyond the 3-4 markers typically reported in traditional fluorescence microscopy. However, these methods often require sequential antibody staining and stripping, and are not compatible with frozen tissue sections. Using fluorophore-conjugated antibodies, we have established a simple mIHC/IF imaging workflow that enables simultaneous staining and detection of seven markers in a single section of frozen tissue. Coupled with automated whole slide imaging and digital quantification, our data efficiently revealed the tumour-immune complexity in metastatic melanoma. Computational image analysis quantified the immune and stromal cell populations present in the TME as well as their spatial interactions. This imaging workflow can also be performed with an indirect labelling panel consisting of primary and secondary antibodies. Our new methods, combined with digital quantification, will provide a valuable tool for high-quality mIHC/IF assays in immuno-oncology research and other translational studies, especially in circumstances where frozen sections are required for detection of particular markers, or for applications where frozen sections may be preferred, such as spatial transcriptomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saem Mul Park
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Chun-Jen J Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Joanna E Mathy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Shelly C Y Lin
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Jon A Mathy
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, Waipapa Taumata Rau - The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Auckland Regional Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery Unit, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - P Rod Dunbar
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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3
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Wieczorek I, Strosznajder RP. Recent Insight into the Role of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Lyase in Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076180. [PMID: 37047151 PMCID: PMC10093903 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase (SPL) is a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme involved in the irreversible degradation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)-a bioactive sphingolipid that modulates a broad range of biological processes (cell proliferation, migration, differentiation and survival; mitochondrial functioning; and gene expression). Although SPL activity leads to a decrease in the available pool of S1P in the cell, at the same time, hexadecenal and phosphoethanolamine, compounds with potential biological activity, are generated. The increased expression and/or activity of SPL, and hence the imbalance between S1P and the end products of its cleavage, were demonstrated in several pathological states. On the other hand, loss-of-function mutations in the SPL encoding gene are a cause of severe developmental impairments. Recently, special attention has been paid to neurodegenerative diseases as the most common pathologies of the nervous system. This review summarizes the current findings concerning the role of SPL in the nervous system with an emphasis on neurodegeneration. Moreover, it briefly discusses pharmacological compounds directed to inhibit its activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iga Wieczorek
- Laboratory of Preclinical Research and Environmental Agents, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Robert Piotr Strosznajder
- Laboratory of Preclinical Research and Environmental Agents, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
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4
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Park SM, Brooks AE, Chen CJJ, Sheppard HM, Loef EJ, McIntosh JD, Angel CE, Mansell CJ, Bartlett A, Cebon J, Birch NP, Dunbar PR. Migratory cues controlling B-lymphocyte trafficking in human lymph nodes. Immunol Cell Biol 2020; 99:49-64. [PMID: 32740978 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
B-cell migration within lymph nodes (LNs) is crucial to adaptive immune responses. Chemotactic gradients are proposed to drive migration of B cells into follicles, followed by their relocation to specific zones of the follicle during activation, and ultimately egress. However, the molecular drivers of these processes and the cells generating chemotactic signals that affect B cells in human LNs are not well understood. We used immunofluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and functional assays to study molecular mechanisms of B-cell migration within human LNs, and found subtle but important differences to previous murine models. In human LNs we find CXCL13 is prominently expressed at the follicular edge, often associated with fibroblastic reticular cells located in these areas, whereas follicular dendritic cells show minimal contribution to CXCL13 expression. Human B cells rapidly downregulate CXCR5 on encountering CXCL13, but recover CXCR5 expression in the CXCL13-low environment. These data suggest that the CXCL13 gradient in human LNs is likely to be different from that proposed in mice. We also identify CD68+ CD11c+ PU.1+ tingible body macrophages within both primary and secondary follicles as likely drivers of the sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) gradient that mediates B-cell egress from LNs, through their expression of the S1P-degrading enzyme, S1P lyase. Based on our findings, we present a model of B-cell migration within human LNs, which has both similarities and interesting differences to that proposed for mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saem Mul Park
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Anna Es Brooks
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Chun-Jen J Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Hilary M Sheppard
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Evert Jan Loef
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Julie D McIntosh
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Catherine E Angel
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Claudia J Mansell
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Adam Bartlett
- School of Medicine, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan Cebon
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, La Trobe University School of Cancer Medicine, Heidelberg, Australia
| | - Nigel P Birch
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - P Rod Dunbar
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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5
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Eom J, Park SM, Feisst V, Chen CJJ, Mathy JE, McIntosh JD, Angel CE, Bartlett A, Martin R, Mathy JA, Cebon JS, Black MA, Brooks AES, Dunbar PR. Distinctive Subpopulations of Stromal Cells Are Present in Human Lymph Nodes Infiltrated with Melanoma. Cancer Immunol Res 2020; 8:990-1003. [PMID: 32580941 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-19-0796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis of human tumors to lymph nodes (LN) is a universally negative prognostic factor. LN stromal cells (SC) play a crucial role in enabling T-cell responses, and because tumor metastases modulate their structure and function, this interaction may suppress immune responses to tumor antigens. The SC subpopulations that respond to infiltration of malignant cells into human LNs have not been defined. Here, we identify distinctive subpopulations of CD90+ SCs present in melanoma-infiltrated LNs and compare them with their counterparts in normal LNs. The first population (CD90+ podoplanin+ CD105+ CD146+ CD271+ VCAM-1+ ICAM-1+ α-SMA+) corresponds to fibroblastic reticular cells that express various T-cell modulating cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules. The second (CD90+ CD34+ CD105+ CD271+) represents a novel population of CD34+ SCs embedded in collagenous structures, such as the capsule and trabeculae, that predominantly produce extracellular matrix. We also demonstrated that these two SC subpopulations are distinct from two subsets of human LN pericytes, CD90+ CD146+ CD36+ NG2- pericytes in the walls of high endothelial venules and other small vessels, and CD90+ CD146+ NG2+ CD36- pericytes in the walls of larger vessels. Distinguishing between these CD90+ SC subpopulations in human LNs allows for further study of their respective impact on T-cell responses to tumor antigens and clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Eom
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Saem Mul Park
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Vaughan Feisst
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Chun-Jen J Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Joanna E Mathy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Julie D McIntosh
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Catherine E Angel
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Adam Bartlett
- Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Richard Martin
- Department of Surgery, Waitemata District Health Board, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jon A Mathy
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Auckland Regional Plastic, Reconstructive & Hand Surgery Unit, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan S Cebon
- Olivia Newton-John Cancer Research Institute, La Trobe University School of Cancer Medicine, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael A Black
- Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Anna E S Brooks
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - P Rod Dunbar
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. .,Maurice Wilkins Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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6
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Don-Doncow N, Vanherle L, Zhang Y, Meissner A. T-Cell Accumulation in the Hypertensive Brain: A Role for Sphingosine-1-Phosphate-Mediated Chemotaxis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20030537. [PMID: 30695999 PMCID: PMC6386943 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20030537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertension is considered the major modifiable risk factor for the development of cognitive impairment. Because increased blood pressure is often accompanied by an activation of the immune system, the concept of neuro-inflammation gained increasing attention in the field of hypertension-associated neurodegeneration. Particularly, hypertension-associated elevated circulating T-lymphocyte populations and target organ damage spurred the interest to understanding mechanisms leading to inflammation-associated brain damage during hypertension. The present study describes sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) as major contributor to T-cell chemotaxis to the brain during hypertension-associated neuro-inflammation and cognitive impairment. Using Western blotting, flow cytometry and mass spectrometry approaches, we show that hypertension stimulates a sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1)-dependent increase of cerebral S1P concentrations in a mouse model of angiotensin II (AngII)-induced hypertension. The development of a distinct S1P gradient between circulating blood and brain tissue associates to elevated CD3+ T-cell numbers in the brain. Inhibition of S1P1-guided T-cell chemotaxis with the S1P receptor modulator FTY720 protects from augmentation of brain CD3 expression and the development of memory deficits in hypertensive WT mice. In conclusion, our data highlight a new approach to the understanding of hypertension-associated inflammation in degenerative processes of the brain during disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lotte Vanherle
- Department of Experimental Science, Lund University, 22 184 Lund, Sweden.
| | - Yun Zhang
- Department of Experimental Science, Lund University, 22 184 Lund, Sweden.
| | - Anja Meissner
- Department of Experimental Science, Lund University, 22 184 Lund, Sweden.
- Wallenberg Center for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, 22 184 Lund, Sweden.
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7
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Don-Doncow N, Zhang Y, Matuskova H, Meissner A. The emerging alliance of sphingosine-1-phosphate signalling and immune cells: from basic mechanisms to implications in hypertension. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 176:1989-2001. [PMID: 29856066 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The immune system plays a considerable role in hypertension. In particular, T-lymphocytes are recognized as important players in its pathogenesis. Despite substantial experimental efforts, the molecular mechanisms underlying the nature of T-cell activation contributing to an onset of hypertension or disease perpetuation are still elusive. Amongst other cell types, lymphocytes express distinct profiles of GPCRs for sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) - a bioactive phospholipid that is involved in many critical cell processes and most importantly majorly regulates T-cell development, lymphocyte recirculation, tissue-homing patterns and chemotactic responses. Recent findings have revealed a key role for S1P chemotaxis and T-cell mobilization for the onset of experimental hypertension, and elevated circulating S1P levels have been linked to several inflammation-associated diseases including hypertension in patients. In this article, we review the recent progress towards understanding how S1P and its receptors regulate immune cell trafficking and function and its potential relevance for the pathophysiology of hypertension. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on Immune Targets in Hypertension. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v176.12/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yun Zhang
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Hana Matuskova
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Neurology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Anja Meissner
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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8
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Sunter G, Enver EO, Akbarzade A, Turan S, Vatansever P, Gunal DI, Haklar G, Bereket A, Agan K, Guran T. Acquired modification of sphingosine-1-phosphate lyase activity is not related to adrenal insufficiency. BMC Neurol 2018; 18:48. [PMID: 29685115 PMCID: PMC5911956 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-018-1049-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Congenital sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) lyase deficiency due to biallelic mutations in SGPL1 gene has recently been described in association with primary adrenal insufficiency and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. S1P lyase, on the other hand, is therapeutically inhibited by fingolimod which is an oral drug for relapsing multiple sclerosis (MS). Effects of this treatment on adrenal function has not yet been evaluated. We aimed to test adrenal function of MS patients receiving long-term fingolimod treatment. Methods Nineteen patients (14 women) with MS receiving oral fingolimod (Gilenya®, Novartis) therapy were included. Median age was 34.2 years (range; 21.3–44.6 years). Median duration of fingolimod treatment was 32 months (range; 6–52 months) at a dose of 0.5 mg/day. Basal and ACTH-stimulated adrenal steroid measurements were evaluated simultaneously employing LC-MS/MS based steroid panel. Basal steroid concentrations were also compared to that of sex- and age-matched healthy subjects. Cortisol and 11-deoxycortisol, 11-deoxycorticosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone were used to assess glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid and sex steroid producing pathways, respectively. Results Basal ACTH concentrations of the patients were 20.8 pg/mL (6.8–37.8 pg/mL) (normal range; 5–65 pg/mL). There was no significant difference in the basal concentrations of cortisol, 11-deoxycortisol, 11-deoxycorticosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone between patients and controls (p = 0.11, 0.058, 0.74, 0.15; respectively). All patients showed adequate cortisol response to 250 mcg IV ACTH stimulation (243 ng/mL, range; 197–362 ng/mL). There was no significant correlation between duration of fingolimod treatment and basal or ACTH-stimulated cortisol or change in cortisol concentrations during ACTH stimulation test (p = 0.57, 0.66 and 0.21, respectively). Conclusion Modification and inhibition of S1P lyase activity by the long-term therapeutic use of fingolimod is not associated with adrenal insufficiency in adult patients with MS. This suggests that S1P lyase has potentially a critical role on adrenal development rather than the function of a fully mature adrenal gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulin Sunter
- Department of Neurology, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ece Oge Enver
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Marmara University, Fevzi Cakmak Mh. Mimar Sinan Cd.No 41., Ustkaynarca/Pendik, 34899, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Azad Akbarzade
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Marmara University, Fevzi Cakmak Mh. Mimar Sinan Cd.No 41., Ustkaynarca/Pendik, 34899, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Serap Turan
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Marmara University, Fevzi Cakmak Mh. Mimar Sinan Cd.No 41., Ustkaynarca/Pendik, 34899, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Pinar Vatansever
- Department of Biochemistry, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Goncagul Haklar
- Department of Biochemistry, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Abdullah Bereket
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Marmara University, Fevzi Cakmak Mh. Mimar Sinan Cd.No 41., Ustkaynarca/Pendik, 34899, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Kadriye Agan
- Department of Neurology, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Tulay Guran
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Marmara University, Fevzi Cakmak Mh. Mimar Sinan Cd.No 41., Ustkaynarca/Pendik, 34899, Istanbul, Turkey.
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9
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Introduction to Homeostatic Migration. Methods Mol Biol 2017. [PMID: 28349471 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6931-9_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Immune cell development and function occur in specialized immunological tissues, the function of which requires active cell migration and interactions between hematopoietic cells and underlying networks of stromal cells. These cells provide a scaffold on which immune cell migrate, provide microenvironments for efficient antigen presentation, and provide signals required for immune cell recruitment and survival. Technical advances in imaging technologies including multiphoton microscopy and 3D tissue reconstructions are being combined with computational approaches to provide new insights into the process of cell migration and function in immunological tissues.
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10
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Lohrberg M, Wilting J. The lymphatic vascular system of the mouse head. Cell Tissue Res 2016; 366:667-677. [PMID: 27599481 PMCID: PMC5121175 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-016-2493-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Histological studies of the lymphatic vascular system in adult mice are hampered because bones cannot be sectioned properly. Here, we decalcified the heads of 14-day-old mice, embedded them in paraffin and stained resultant serial sections with the lymphendothelial-specific antibodies Lyve-1 and Podoplanin. We show that the tissues with the highest lymphatic vascular density are the dermis and the oral mucous membranes. In contrast, the nasal mucous membrane is devoid of lymphatics, except for its most basal parts below the vomeronasal organ. The inferior nasal turbinate contains numerous lymphatics and is connected to the nasolacrimal duct (NLD), which is ensheathed by a dense network of lymphatics. The lymphatics of the eye lids and conjunctiva are connected to those of the inferior nasal turbinate. We suggest that cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) can drain via the optic nerve and NLD lymphatics, whereas CSF drained via the Fila olfactoria into the nasal mucous membrane is used for moisturization of the respiratory air. Tongue, palatine and buccal mucous membranes possess numerous lymphatics, whereas the dental pulp has none. Lymphatics are present in the maxillary gland and close to the temporomandibular joint, suggesting the augmentation of lymph flow by chewing and yawning. Lymphatics can also be found in the dura mater and in the dural septae entering into deeper parts of the brain. Our findings are discussed with regard to CSF drainage and potential routes for ocular tumor dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Lohrberg
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Medical School Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Jörg Wilting
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Medical School Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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11
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Lipid Histiocytosis of the Gallbladder Neck Lymph Node. Case Rep Pathol 2016; 2016:1061507. [PMID: 27847666 PMCID: PMC5101380 DOI: 10.1155/2016/1061507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 09/27/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid histiocytosis of the gallbladder neck lymph node is rarely reported nowadays. Two obese patients presented with gallbladder lithiasis detected on CT scan. The treatment consisted in coelioscopic cholecystectomy. Microscopy revealed subacute/chronic lithiasic cholecystitis and foci of vacuolated cells in the gallbladder neck lymph node. These cells were positive for CD68, CD31, S100 protein, and adipophilin and negative for cytokeratin and Alcian blue. In conclusion, we report lymph node lipid histiocytosis diagnosed microscopically after cholecystectomy. While such lesions may remain unidentified on imaging procedures, the microscopic analysis may require special stains and immunohistochemistry for ruling out adenocarcinoma metastasis.
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Nazari B, Rice LM, Stifano G, Barron AMS, Wang YM, Korndorf T, Lee J, Bhawan J, Lafyatis R, Browning JL. Altered Dermal Fibroblasts in Systemic Sclerosis Display Podoplanin and CD90. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2016; 186:2650-64. [PMID: 27565038 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Tissue injury triggers the activation and differentiation of multiple cell types to minimize damage and initiate repair processes. In systemic sclerosis, these repair processes appear to run unchecked, leading to aberrant remodeling and fibrosis of the skin and multiple internal organs, yet the fundamental pathological defect remains unknown. We describe herein a transition wherein the abundant CD34(+) dermal fibroblasts present in healthy human skin disappear in the skin of systemic sclerosis patients, and CD34(-), podoplanin(+), and CD90(+) fibroblasts appear. This transition is limited to the upper dermis in several inflammatory skin diseases, yet in systemic sclerosis, it can occur in all regions of the dermis. In vitro, primary dermal fibroblasts readily express podoplanin in response to the inflammatory stimuli tumor necrosis factor and IL-1β. Furthermore, we show that on acute skin injury in both human and murine settings, this transition occurs quickly, consistent with a response to inflammatory signaling. Transitioned fibroblasts partially resemble the cells that form the reticular networks in organized lymphoid tissues, potentially linking two areas of fibroblast research. These results allow for the visualization and quantification of a basic stage of fibroblast differentiation in inflammatory and fibrotic diseases in the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banafsheh Nazari
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Lisa M Rice
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Giuseppina Stifano
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Alexander M S Barron
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Yu Mei Wang
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Tess Korndorf
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Jungeun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Jag Bhawan
- Department of Dermatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Robert Lafyatis
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Division of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jeffrey L Browning
- Section of Rheumatology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts.
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Harris CM, Mittelstadt S, Banfor P, Bousquet P, Duignan DB, Gintant G, Hart M, Kim Y, Segreti J. Sphingosine-1-Phosphate (S1P) Lyase Inhibition Causes Increased Cardiac S1P Levels and Bradycardia in Rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2016; 359:151-8. [PMID: 27519818 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.116.235002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of the sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)-catabolizing enzyme S1P lyase (S1PL) elevates the native ligand of S1P receptors and provides an alternative mechanism for immune suppression to synthetic S1P receptor agonists. S1PL inhibition is reported to preferentially elevate S1P in lymphoid organs. Tissue selectivity could potentially differentiate S1PL inhibitors from S1P receptor agonists, the use of which also results in bradycardia, atrioventricular block, and hypertension. But it is unknown if S1PL inhibition would also modulate cardiac S1P levels or cardiovascular function. The S1PL inhibitor 6-[(2R)-4-(4-benzyl-7-chlorophthalazin-1-yl)-2-methylpiperazin-1-yl]pyridine-3-carbonitrile was used to determine the relationship in rats between drug concentration, S1P levels in select tissues, and circulating lymphocytes. Repeated oral doses of the S1PL inhibitor fully depleted circulating lymphocytes after 3 to 4 days of treatment in rats. Full lymphopenia corresponded to increased levels of S1P of 100- to 1000-fold in lymph nodes, 3-fold in blood (but with no change in plasma), and 9-fold in cardiac tissue. Repeated oral dosing of the S1PL inhibitor in telemeterized, conscious rats resulted in significant bradycardia within 48 hours of drug treatment, comparable in magnitude to the bradycardia induced by 3 mg/kg fingolimod. These results suggest that S1PL inhibition modulates cardiac function and does not provide immune suppression with an improved cardiovascular safety profile over fingolimod in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher M Harris
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Scott Mittelstadt
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Patricia Banfor
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Peter Bousquet
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - David B Duignan
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Gary Gintant
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Michelle Hart
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Youngjae Kim
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
| | - Jason Segreti
- Department of Immunology Pharmacology (C.M.H., P.Bo., M.H.) and Department of Drug Metabolism, Pharmacokinetics, and Bioanalysis (D.B.D., Y.K.), AbbVie Bioresearch Center, Worcester, Massachusetts; Department of Safety Pharmacology, AbbVie, North Chicago, Illinois (S.M., P.Ba., G.G., J.S.)
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Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Signaling in Immune Cells and Inflammation: Roles and Therapeutic Potential. Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:8606878. [PMID: 26966342 PMCID: PMC4761394 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8606878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid metabolite involved in many critical cell processes. It is produced by the phosphorylation of sphingosine by sphingosine kinases (SphKs) and exported out of cells via transporters such as spinster homolog 2 (Spns2). S1P regulates diverse physiological processes by binding to specific G protein-binding receptors, S1P receptors (S1PRs) 1-5, through a process coined as "inside-out signaling." The S1P concentration gradient between various tissues promotes S1PR1-dependent migration of T cells from secondary lymphoid organs into the lymphatic and blood circulation. S1P suppresses T cell egress from and promotes retention in inflamed peripheral tissues. S1PR1 in T and B cells as well as Spns2 in endothelial cells contributes to lymphocyte trafficking. FTY720 (Fingolimod) is a functional antagonist of S1PRs that induces systemic lymphopenia by suppression of lymphocyte egress from lymphoid organs. In this review, we summarize previous findings and new discoveries about the importance of S1P and S1PR signaling in the recruitment of immune cells and lymphocyte retention in inflamed tissues. We also discuss the role of S1P-S1PR1 axis in inflammatory diseases and wound healing.
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Organ-wide 3D-imaging and topological analysis of the continuous microvascular network in a murine lymph node. Sci Rep 2015; 5:16534. [PMID: 26567707 PMCID: PMC4645097 DOI: 10.1038/srep16534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding of the microvasculature has previously been limited by the lack of methods capable of capturing and modelling complete vascular networks. We used novel imaging and computational techniques to establish the topology of the entire blood vessel network of a murine lymph node, combining 63,706 confocal images at 2 μm pixel resolution to cover a volume of 3.88 mm(3). Detailed measurements including the distribution of vessel diameters, branch counts, and identification of voids were subsequently re-visualised in 3D revealing regional specialisation within the network. By focussing on critical immune microenvironments we quantified differences in their vascular topology. We further developed a morphology-based approach to identify High Endothelial Venules, key sites for lymphocyte extravasation. These data represent a comprehensive and continuous blood vessel network of an entire organ and provide benchmark measurements that will inform modelling of blood vessel networks as well as enable comparison of vascular topology in different organs.
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Hoorweg K, Narang P, Li Z, Thuery A, Papazian N, Withers DR, Coles MC, Cupedo T. A Stromal Cell Niche for Human and Mouse Type 3 Innate Lymphoid Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:4257-4263. [PMID: 26378073 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive immunity critically depends on the functional compartmentalization of secondary lymphoid organs. Mesenchymal stromal cells create and maintain specialized niches that support survival, activation, and expansion of T and B cells, and integrated analysis of lymphocytes and their niche has been instrumental in understanding adaptive immunity. Lymphoid organs are also home to type 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3), innate effector cells essential for barrier immunity. However, a specialized stromal niche for ILC3 has not been identified. A novel lineage-tracing approach now identifies a subset of murine fetal lymphoid tissue organizer cells that gives rise exclusively to adult marginal reticular cells. Moreover, both cell types are conserved from mice to humans and colocalize with ILC3 in secondary lymphoid tissues throughout life. In sum, we provide evidence that fetal stromal organizers give rise to adult marginal reticular cells and form a dedicated stromal niche for innate ILC3 in adaptive lymphoid organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerim Hoorweg
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Priyanka Narang
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Zhi Li
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Anne Thuery
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Natalie Papazian
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - David R Withers
- Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K
| | - Mark C Coles
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, University of York, York, UK
| | - Tom Cupedo
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Strauss O, Dunbar PR, Bartlett A, Phillips A. The immunophenotype of antigen presenting cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system in normal human liver--a systematic review. J Hepatol 2015; 62:458-68. [PMID: 25315649 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2014.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS), comprised of monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, is essential in tissue homeostasis and in determining the balance of the immune response through its role in antigen presentation. It has been identified as a therapeutic target in infectious disease, cancer, autoimmune disease and transplant rejection. Here, we review the current understanding of the immunophenotype and function of the MPS in normal human liver. Using well-defined selection criteria, a search of MEDLINE and EMBASE databases identified 76 appropriate studies. The majority (n=67) described Kupffer cells (KCs), although the definition of KC differs between sources, and little data were available regarding their function. Only 10 papers looked at liver dendritic cells (DCs), and largely confirmed the presence of the major dendritic cell subsets identified in human blood. Monocytes were thoroughly characterized in four studies that utilized flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy and highlighted their prominent role in liver homeostasis and displayed subtle differences from circulating monocytes. There was some limited evidence that liver DCs are tolerogenic but neither liver dendritic cell subsets nor macrophages have been thoroughly characterized, using either multi-colour flow cytometry or multi-parameter fluorescence microscopy. The lobular distribution of different subsets of liver MPS cells was also poorly described, and the ability to distinguish between passenger leukocytes and tissue resident cells remains limited. It was apparent that further research, using modern immunological techniques, is now required to accurately characterize the cells of the MPS in human liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Otto Strauss
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - P Rod Dunbar
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Adam Bartlett
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Anthony Phillips
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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