Sulfoxygenation of Active Site Models of [NiFe] and [FeFe] Hydrogenases – A Commentary on Possible Chemical Models of Hydrogenase Enzyme Oxygen Sensitivity

Chloride- and Hydrosulfide-Bound 2Fe Complexes as Models of the Oxygen-Stable State of [FeFe] Hydrogenase

[FeFe] hydrogenases demonstrate remarkable catalytic efficiency in hydrogen evolution and oxidation processes. However, susceptibility of these enzymes to oxygen-induced degradation impedes their practical deployment in hydrogen-production devices and fuel cells. Recent investigations into the oxygen-stable (Hinact) state of the H-cluster revealed its inherent capacity to resist oxygen degradation. Herein, we present findings on Cl- and SH-bound [2Fe-2S] complexes, bearing relevance to the oxygen-stable state within a biological context. A characteristic attribute of these complexes is the terminal Cl-/SH- ligation to the iron center bearing the CO bridge. Structural analysis of the t-Cl demonstrates a striking resemblance to the Hinact state of DdHydAB and CbA5H. The t-Cl/t-SH exhibit reversible oxidation, with both redox species, electronically, being the first biomimetic analogs to the Htrans and Hinact states. These complexes exhibit notable resistance against oxygen-induced decomposition, supporting the potential oxygen-resistant nature of the Htrans and Hinact states. The swift reductive release of the Cl-/SH-group demonstrates its labile and kinetically controlled binding. The findings garnered from these investigations offer valuable insights into properties of the enzymatic O2-stable state, and key factors governing deactivation and reactivation conversion. This work contributes to the advancement of bio-inspired molecular catalysts and the integration of enzymes and artificial catalysts into H2-evolution devices and fuel-cell applications.

Oxygen sensitivity of [FeFe]-hydrogenase: a comparative study of active site mimics inside vs. outside the enzyme

[FeFe]-hydrogenase is nature's most efficient proton reducing and H2-oxidizing enzyme. However, biotechnological applications are hampered by the O2 sensitivity of this metalloenzyme, and the mechanism of aerobic deactivation is not well understood. Here, we explore the oxygen sensitivity of four mimics of the organometallic active site cofactor of [FeFe]-hydrogenase, [Fe2(adt)(CO)6-x(CN)x]x- and [Fe2(pdt)(CO)6-x(CN)x]x- (x = 1, 2) as well as the corresponding cofactor variants of the enzyme by means of infrared, Mössbauer, and NMR spectroscopy. Additionally, we describe a straightforward synthetic recipe for the active site precursor complex Fe2(adt)(CO)6. Our data indicate that the aminodithiolate (adt) complex, which is the synthetic precursor of the natural active site cofactor, is most oxygen sensitive. This observation highlights the significance of proton transfer in aerobic deactivation, and supported by DFT calculations facilitates an identification of the responsible reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, we show that the ligand environment of the iron ions critically influences the reactivity with O2 and ROS like superoxide and H2O2 as the oxygen sensitivity increases with the exchange of ligands from CO to CN-. The trends in aerobic deactivation observed for the model complexes are in line with the respective enzyme variants. Based on experimental and computational data, a model for the initial reaction of [FeFe]-hydrogenase with O2 is developed. Our study underscores the relevance of model systems in understanding biocatalysis and validates their potential as important tools for elucidating the chemistry of oxygen-induced deactivation of [FeFe]-hydrogenase.

The roles of chalcogenides in O2 protection of H2ase active sites

At some point, all HER (Hydrogen Evolution Reaction) catalysts, important in sustainable H2O splitting technology, will encounter O2 and O2-damage. The [NiFeSe]-H2ases and some of the [NiFeS]-H2ases, biocatalysts for reversible H2 production from protons and electrons, are exemplars of oxygen tolerant HER catalysts in nature. In the hydrogenase active sites oxygen damage may be extensive (irreversible) as it is for the [FeFe]-H2ase or moderate (reversible) for the [NiFe]-H2ases. The affinity of oxygen for sulfur, in [NiFeS]-H2ase, and selenium, in [NiFeSe]-H2ase, yielding oxygenated chalcogens results in maintenance of the core NiFe unit, and myriad observable but inactive states, which can be reductively repaired. In contrast, the [FeFe]-H2ase active site has less possibilities for chalcogen-oxygen uptake and a greater chance for O2-attack on iron. Exposure to O2 typically leads to irreversible damage. Despite the evidence of S/Se-oxygenation in the active sites of hydrogenases, there are limited reported synthetic models. This perspective will give an overview of the studies of O2 reactions with the hydrogenases and biomimetics with focus on our recent studies that compare sulfur and selenium containing synthetic analogues of the [NiFe]-H2ase active sites.

Catalytic H2 evolution/oxidation in [FeFe]-hydrogenase biomimetics: account from DFT on the interplay of related issues and proposed solutions

A DFT overview on selected issues regarding diiron catalysts related to [FeFe]-hydrogenase biomimetic research, with implications for both energy conversion and storage strategies.

Loss of Specific Active-Site Iron Atoms in Oxygen-Exposed [FeFe]-Hydrogenase Determined by Detailed X-ray Structure Analyses

The [FeFe]-hydrogenases catalyze the uptake and evolution of hydrogen with unmatched speed at low overpotential. However, oxygen induces the degradation of the unique [6Fe-6S] cofactor within the active site, termed the H-cluster. We used X-ray structural analyses to determine possible modes of irreversible oxygen-driven inactivation. To this end, we exposed crystals of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase CpI from Clostridium pasteurianum to oxygen and quantitatively investigated the effects on the H-cluster structure over several time points using multiple data sets, while correlating it to decreases in enzyme activity. Our results reveal the loss of specific Fe atoms from both the diiron (2Fe_H) and the [4Fe-4S] subcluster (4Fe_H) of the H-cluster. Within the 2Fe_H, the Fe atom more distal to the 4Fe_H is strikingly more affected than the more proximal Fe atom. The 4Fe_H interconverts to a [2Fe-2S] cluster in parts of the population of active CpI^ADT, but not in crystals of the inactive apoCpI initially lacking the 2Fe_H. We thus propose two parallel processes: dissociation of the distal Fe atom and 4Fe_H interconversion. Both pathways appear to play major roles in the oxidative damage of [FeFe]-hydrogenases under electron-donor deprived conditions probed by our experimental setup.

Comprehensive reaction mechanisms at and near the Ni-Fe active sites of [NiFe] hydrogenases

[NiFe] hydrogenase (H2ase) catalyzes the oxidation of dihydrogen to two protons and two electrons and/or its reverse reaction. For this simple reaction, the enzyme has developed a sophisticated but intricate mechanism with heterolytic cleavage of dihydrogen (or a combination of a hydride and a proton), where its Ni-Fe active site exhibits various redox states. Recently, thermodynamic parameters of the acid-base equilibrium for activation-inactivation, a new intermediate in the catalytic reaction, and new crystal structures of [NiFe] H2ases have been reported, providing significant insights into the activation-inactivation and catalytic reaction mechanisms of [NiFe] H2ases. This Perspective provides an overview of the reaction mechanisms of [NiFe] H2ases based on these new findings.

Click Access to a Cyclodextrin-Based Spatially Confined AIE Material for Hydrogenase Recognition

The spatial confinement of conjugated phenyl rotators is a compulsory requirement for the fluorescence enhancement of aggregation induced emission (AIE) molecules. This work reports a novel spatially confined AIE material by restricting several tetraphenylethylene (TPE) molecules around the primary face of β-cyclodextrin (CD) via a Cu(I) catalytic 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction (click chemistry). The spatial confinement effect was found to significantly enhance the fluorescence emission when compared with a single TPE modified CD. In addition, the emission maxima took place with the dimethyl sulfoxide volume ratio of 30% in a water mixture, which is remarkably different from traditional AIE molecules. Benefiting from the CD’s complexation effect, this material exhibits a selective fluorescence quenching property in certain hydrogenases and can be used as a fluorescence probe for hydrogenase sensing. This demonstrates the potential of the spatially confined AIECD for practical applications.

Synthesis of Diiron(I) Dithiolato Carbonyl Complexes

Virtually all organosulfur compounds react with Fe(0) carbonyls to give the title complexes. These reactions are reviewed in light of major advances over the past few decades, spurred by interest in Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)x centers at the active sites of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase enzymes. The most useful synthetic route to Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)6 involves the reaction of thiols with Fe2(CO)9 and Fe3(CO)12. Such reactions can proceed via mono-, di-, and triiron intermediates. The reactivity of Fe(0) carbonyls toward thiols is highly chemoselective, and the resulting dithiolato complexes are fairly rugged. Thus, many complexes tolerate further synthetic elaboration directed at the organic substituents. A second major route involves alkylation of Fe2(μ-S2)(CO)6, Fe2(μ-SH)2(CO)6, and Li2Fe2(μ-S)2(CO)6. This approach is especially useful for azadithiolates Fe2[(μ-SCH2)2NR](CO)6. Elaborate complexes arise via addition of the FeSH group to electrophilic alkenes, alkynes, and carbonyls. Although the first example of Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)6 was prepared from ferrous reagents, ferrous compounds are infrequently used, although the Fe(II)(SR)2 + Fe(0) condensation reaction is promising. Almost invariably low-yielding, the reaction of Fe3(CO)12, S8, and a variety of unsaturated substrates results in C-H activation, affording otherwise inaccessible derivatives. Thiones and related C═S-containing reagents are highly reactive toward Fe(0), often giving complexes derived from substituted methanedithiolates and C-H activation.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Reactivity of Functionalized Trinuclear Iron-Sulfur Clusters - A New Class of Bioinspired Hydrogenase Models

The air- and moisture-stable iron-sulfur carbonyl clusters Fe3S2(CO)7(dppm) (1) and Fe3S2(CO)7(dppf) (2) carrying the bisphosphine ligands bis(diphenylphosphanyl)methane (dppm) and 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphanyl)ferrocene (dppf) were prepared and fully characterized. Two alternative synthetic routes based on different thionation reactions of triiron dodecacarbonyl were tested. The molecular structures of the methylene-bridged compound 1 and the ferrocene-functionalized derivative 2 were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The catalytic reactivity of the trinuclear iron-sulfur cluster core for proton reduction in solution at low overpotential was demonstrated. These deeply colored bisphosphine-bridged sulfur-capped iron carbonyl systems are discussed as promising candidates for the development of new bioinspired model compounds of iron-based hydrogenases.

Active Site of the NAD(+)-Reducing Hydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha Studied by EPR Spectroscopy

Pulsed ENDOR and HYSCORE measurements were carried out to characterize the active site of the oxygen-tolerant NAD(+)-reducing hydrogenase of Ralstonia eutropha. The catalytically active Nia-C state exhibits a bridging hydride between iron and nickel in the active site, which is photodissociated upon illumination. Its hyperfine coupling is comparable to that of standard hydrogenases. In addition, a histidine residue could be identified, which shows hyperfine and nuclear quadrupole parameters in significant variance from comparable histidine residues that are conserved in standard [NiFe] hydrogenases, and might be related to the O2 tolerance of the enzyme.

A sterically stabilized FeI–FeI semi-rotated conformation of [FeFe] hydrogenase subsite model

Semi-rotated state – As the first example so far a [Fe^IFe^I] H₂ase model complex with a bulky silicon-containing dithiolate bridge is reported showing a semi-rotated geometry without the need of stabilization via agostic interactions.

A new FeMo complex as a model of heterobimetallic assemblies in natural systems: Mössbauer and density functional theory investigations

The design of the new FeMo heterobimetallic species [FeMo(CO)5(κ(2)-dppe)(μ-pdt)] is reported. Mössbauer spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations give deep insight into the electronic and structural properties of this compound.

Rubredoxin-related maturation factor guarantees metal cofactor integrity during aerobic biosynthesis of membrane-bound [NiFe] hydrogenase

The membrane-bound [NiFe] hydrogenase (MBH) supports growth of Ralstonia eutropha H16 with H2 as the sole energy source. The enzyme undergoes a complex biosynthesis process that proceeds during cell growth even at ambient O2 levels and involves 14 specific maturation proteins. One of these is a rubredoxin-like protein, which is essential for biosynthesis of active MBH at high oxygen concentrations but dispensable under microaerobic growth conditions. To obtain insights into the function of HoxR, we investigated the MBH protein purified from the cytoplasmic membrane of hoxR mutant cells. Compared with wild-type MBH, the mutant enzyme displayed severely decreased hydrogenase activity. Electron paramagnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopic analyses revealed features resembling those of O2-sensitive [NiFe] hydrogenases and/or oxidatively damaged protein. The catalytic center resided partially in an inactive Niu-A-like state, and the electron transfer chain consisting of three different Fe-S clusters showed marked alterations compared with wild-type enzyme. Purification of HoxR protein from its original host, R. eutropha, revealed only low protein amounts. Therefore, recombinant HoxR protein was isolated from Escherichia coli. Unlike common rubredoxins, the HoxR protein was colorless, rather unstable, and essentially metal-free. Conversion of the atypical iron-binding motif into a canonical one through genetic engineering led to a stable reddish rubredoxin. Remarkably, the modified HoxR protein did not support MBH-dependent growth at high O2. Analysis of MBH-associated protein complexes points toward a specific interaction of HoxR with the Fe-S cluster-bearing small subunit. This supports the previously made notion that HoxR avoids oxidative damage of the metal centers of the MBH, in particular the unprecedented Cys6[4Fe-3S] cluster.

Spectroscopic and electrochemical characterization of the [NiFeSe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F: reversible redox behavior and interactions between electron transfer centers

Characterizing a new hydrogenase: The newly isolated [NiFeSe] hydrogenase from Desulfovibrio vulgaris Miyazaki F displays catalytic properties distinct from other hydrogenase proteins. Here we apply site-specific spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques to characterize these unique features at the molecular level.

Reactions of [FeFe]-hydrogenase models involving the formation of hydrides related to proton reduction and hydrogen oxidation

[FeFe]-hydrogenases are enzymes in nature that catalyze the reduction of protons and the oxidation of H2 at neutral pH with remarkably high activities and incredibly low overpotential. Structural and functional biomimicking of the active site of [FeFe]-hydrogenases can provide helpful hints for elucidating the mechanism of H2 evolution and uptake at the [FeFe]-hydrogenase active site and for designing bioinspired catalysts to replace the expensive noble metal catalysts for H2 generation and uptake. This perspective focuses on the recent progress in the formation and reactivity of iron hydrides closely related to the processes of proton reduction and hydrogen oxidation mediated by diiron dithiolate complexes. The second section surveys the bridging and terminal hydride species formed from various diiron complexes as well as the intramolecular proton transfer. The very recent progress in H2 activation by diiron dithiolate models are reviewed in the third section. In the concluding remarks and outlook, the differences in structure and catalytic mechanism between the synthetic models and the native [FeFe]-H2ase active site are compared and analyzed, which may cause the need for a significantly larger driving force and may lead to lower activities of synthetic models than the [FeFe]-H2ases for H2 generation and uptake.

Principles of sustained enzymatic hydrogen oxidation in the presence of oxygen--the crucial influence of high potential Fe-S clusters in the electron relay of [NiFe]-hydrogenases

"Hyd-1", produced by Escherichia coli , exemplifies a special class of [NiFe]-hydrogenase that can sustain high catalytic H(2) oxidation activity in the presence of O(2)-an intruder that normally incapacitates the sulfur- and electron-rich active site. The mechanism of "O(2) tolerance" involves a critical role for the Fe-S clusters of the electron relay, which is to ensure the availability-for immediate transfer back to the active site-of all of the electrons required to reduce an attacking O(2) molecule completely to harmless H(2)O. The unique [4Fe-3S] cluster proximal to the active site is crucial because it can rapidly transfer two of the electrons needed. Here we investigate and establish the equally crucial role of the high potential medial [3Fe-4S] cluster, located >20 Å from the active site. A variant, P242C, in which the medial [3Fe-4S] cluster is replaced by a [4Fe-4S] cluster, is unable to sustain steady-state H(2) oxidation activity in 1% O(2). The [3Fe-4S] cluster is essential only for the first stage of complete O(2) reduction, ensuring the supply of all three electrons needed to form the oxidized inactive state "Ni-B" or "Ready" (Ni(III)-OH). Potentiometric titrations show that Ni-B is easily reduced (E(m) ≈ +0.1 V at pH 6.0); this final stage of the O(2)-tolerance mechanism regenerates active enzyme, effectively completing a competitive four-electron oxidase cycle and is fast regardless of alterations at the proximal or medial clusters. As a consequence of all these factors, the enzyme's response to O(2), viewed by its electrocatalytic activity in protein film electrochemistry (PFE) experiments, is merely to exhibit attenuated steady-state H(2) oxidation activity; thus, O(2) behaves like a reversible inhibitor rather than an agent that effectively causes irreversible inactivation. The data consolidate a rich picture of the versatile role of Fe-S clusters in electron relays and suggest that Hyd-1 can function as a proficient hydrogen oxidase.