Enhancing the Bioaccessibility of Phytosterols Using Nanoporous Corn and Wheat Starch Bioaerogels

Increasing the bioavailability of curcumin using a green supercritical fluid technology-assisted approach based on simultaneous starch aerogel formation-curcumin impregnation

A green approach based on simultaneous starch aerogel formation-curcumin impregnation via supercritical fluid technology was used to increase the bioavailability of curcumin. The loading amounts of curcumin were 16.4, 21.4, and 24.9 mg/g of aerogel for the 25% Amyl-loaded, 55% Amyl-loaded, and 72% Amyl-loaded samples, respectively. Curcumin-loaded aerogels showed the eventual distribution of curcumin in the hydrophobic area of the internal structure of the aerogels. In vitro gastrointestinal release profiles demonstrated the enhanced curcumin release from the curcumin-loaded aerogel formulations produced by the SC-CO2 technology over free curcumin. After intestinal digestion, the percentage of released curcumin from 25% Amyl-loaded, 55% Amyl-loaded, and 72% Amyl-loaded was 7.2, 12.1, and 12.1%, respectively, while the release of native curcumin was only 0.5%. Caco-2 cell permeation studies revealed superior bioavailability of curcumin from the curcumin-loaded aerogels. Curcumin-loaded aerogels exhibited improved storage stability than free curcumin.

Current and New Insights on Delivery Systems for Plant Sterols in Food

Plant sterols are minor bioactive components of food lipids, which are often used for the formulation of functional foods due to their cholesterol-lowering properties. However, they have low solubility and tend to crystallize, which may affect their biological effects, the sensory profile of the sterol-enriched food, and its consumer acceptability. Moreover, due to the unsaturated structure of sterols, they are susceptible to oxidation, so different encapsulation systems have been developed to improve their dispersibility/solubility, stability, delivery, and bioaccessibility. This chapter provides an overview of the main encapsulation systems currently used for plant sterols and their application in model and food systems, with a particular focus on their efficiency and impact on sterol bioaccessibility.

Combination of Nanodelivery Systems and Constituents Derived from Novel Foods: A Comprehensive Review

Novel Food is a new category of food, regulated by the European Union Directive No. 2015/2283. This latter norm defines a food as "Novel" if it was not used "for human consumption to a significant degree within the Union before the date of entry into force of that regulation, namely 15 May 1997". Recently, Novel Foods have received increased interest from researchers worldwide. In this sense, the key areas of interest are the discovery of new benefits for human health and the exploitation of these novel sources of materials in new fields of application. An emerging area in the pharmaceutical and medicinal fields is nanotechnology, which deals with the development of new delivery systems at a nanometric scale. In this context, this review aims to summarize the recent advances on the design and characterization of nanodelivery systems based on materials belonging to the Novel Food list, as well as on nanoceutical products formulated for delivering compounds derived from Novel Foods. Additionally, the safety hazard of using nanoparticles in food products, i.e., food supplements, has been discussed in view of the current European regulation, which considers nanomaterials as Novel Foods.

Structural, rheological, and gelling characteristics of starch-based materials in context to 3D food printing applications in precision nutrition

Starch-based materials have viscoelasticity, viscous film-forming, dough pseudoplasticity, and rheological properties, which possess the structural characteristics (crystal structure, double helix structure, and layered structure) suitable for three-dimensional (3D) food printing inks. 3D food printing technology has significant advantages in customizing personalized and precise nutrition, expanding the range of ingredients, designing unique food appearances, and simplifying the food supply chain. Precision nutrition aims to consider individual nutritional needs and individual differences, which include special food product design and personalized precise nutrition, thus expanding future food resources, then simplifying the food supply chain, and attracting extensive attention in food industry. Different types of starch-based materials with different structures and rheological properties meet different 3D food printing technology requirements. Starch-based materials suitable for 3D food printing technology can accurately deliver and release active substances or drugs. These active substances or drugs have certain regulatory effects on the gut microbiome and diabetes, so as to maintain personalized and accurate nutrition.

Polysaccharide-based porous biopolymers for enhanced bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive food compounds: Challenges, advances, and opportunities

Bioactive food compounds, such as lycopene, curcumin, phytosterols, and resveratrol, have received great attention due to their potential health benefits. However, these bioactive compounds (BCs) have poor chemical stability during processing and low bioavailability after consumption. Several delivery systems have been proposed for enhancing their stability and bioavailability. Among these methods, porous biopolymers have emerged as alternative encapsulation materials, as they have superior properties like high surface area, porosity, and tunable surface chemistry to entrap BCs. This reduces the crystallinity (especially for the lipophilic ones) and particle size, and in turn, increases solubilization and bioavailability. Also, loading BCs into the porous matrix can protect them against environmental stresses such as light, heat, oxygen, and pH. This review introduces polysaccharide-based porous biopolymers for improving the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of bioactive food compounds and discusses their recent applications in the food industry. First, bioaccessibility and bioavailability are described with a special emphasis on the factors affecting them. Then, porous biopolymer fabrication methods, including supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂ ) drying, freeze-drying, and electrospinning and electrospraying, are thoroughly discussed. Finally, common polysaccharide-based biopolymers (i.e., starch, nanocellulose, alginate, and pectin) used for generating porous materials are reviewed, and their current and potential future food applications are critically discussed.

Bio-aerogels: Fabrication, properties and food applications

Traditional inorganic aerogels sustainability, biodegradability, and environmental safety concerns have driven researchers to find their safe green alternatives. Recently, interest in the application of bio-aerogels has rapidly increased in the food industry due to their unique characteristics such as high specific surface area and porosity, ultralow density, tunable pore size and morphology, and superior properties (physicochemical, mechanical, and functional). Bio-aerogels, a special category of highly porous unique materials, fabricated by the sol-gel method followed by drying processes, comprising three-dimensional networks of interconnected biopolymers (e.g., polysaccharides and proteins) with numerous air-filled pores. The production of bio-aerogels begins with the formation of a homogeneously dispersed precursor solution, followed by gelation and wet gel drying procedures by employing special drying techniques including atmospheric-, freeze-, and supercritical drying. Due to their special properties, bio-aerogels have emerged as sustainable biomaterial for many industrial applications, i.e., encapsulation and controlled delivery, active packaging, heavy metals separation, water and air filtration, oleogels, and biosensors. Bio-aerogels are low-cost, biocompatible, and biodegradable sustainable material that can be used in improving the processing, storage, transportation, and bioavailability of food additives, functional ingredients, and bioactive substances for their health benefits with enhanced shelf-life.

Water-Dispersible Phytosterol Nanoparticles: Preparation, Characterization, and in vitro Digestion

For improving solubility and bioaccessibility of phytosterols (PS), phytosterol nanoparticles (PNPs) were prepared by emulsification–evaporation combined high-pressure homogenization method. The organic phase was formed with the dissolved PS and soybean lecithin (SL) in anhydrous ethanol, then mixed with soy protein isolate (SPI) solution, and homogenized into nanoparticles, followed by the evaporation of ethanol. The optimum fabrication conditions were determined as PS (1%, w/v): SL of 1:4, SPI content of 0.75% (w/v), and ethanol volume of 16 ml. PNPs were characterized to have average particle size 93.35 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) 0.179, zeta potential −29.3 mV, and encapsulation efficiency (EE) 97.3%. The impact of temperature, pH, and ionic strength on the stability of fabricated PNPs was determined. After 3-h in vitro digestion, the bioaccessibility of PS in nanoparticles reached 70.8%, significantly higher than the 18.2% of raw PS. Upon freeze-drying, the particle size of PNPs increased to 199.1 nm, resulting in a bimodal distribution. The solubility of PS in water could reach up to 2.122 mg/ml, ~155 times higher than that of raw PS. Therefore, this study contributes to the development of functional PS-food ingredients.

Prospects of Marine Sterols against Pathobiology of Alzheimer's Disease: Pharmacological Insights and Technological Advances

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disorder characterized by a progressive decline in memory and cognition, mostly affecting the elderly. Numerous functional bioactives have been reported in marine organisms, and anti-Alzheimer's agents derived from marine resources have gained attention as a promising approach to treat AD pathogenesis. Marine sterols have been investigated for several health benefits, including anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, anti-aging, and anti-Alzheimer's activities, owing to their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Marine sterols interact with various proteins and enzymes participating via diverse cellular systems such as apoptosis, the antioxidant defense system, immune response, and cholesterol homeostasis. Here, we briefly overview the potential of marine sterols against the pathology of AD and provide an insight into their pharmacological mechanisms. We also highlight technological advances that may lead to the potential application of marine sterols in the prevention and therapy of AD.

Aerogels based on corn starch as carriers for pinhão coat extract (Araucaria angustifolia) rich in phenolic compounds for active packaging

The objective of this study was to produce renewable aerogels from native and anionic corn starches loaded with pinhão coat extract (PCE) with water absorbent capacity, antioxidant activity and controlled release of phenolic compounds in a hydrophilic food simulant media. Starch aerogels were produced with different concentrations of PCE, 5 and 10%, and evaluated for FT-IR spectra, relative crystallinity, thermal properties, water absorption capacity (WAC), density, antioxidant activity and in vitro release. Thermal stability of the compounds was improved by the incorporation of PCE. The aerogels presented high WAC of 541 to 731% and low-density values of 0.03 g.cm^-1. The highest inhibition of DPPH and ABTS radicals was presented to anionic starch aerogels with 10% PCE rendering 26% of inhibition of ABTS and 24% of DPPH. The maximum in vitro releases for native and anionic starch aerogels with 5% of PCE were 28.70 and 29.44%, respectively, and for aerogels with 10% of PCE they were 34.27 and 35.94%, respectively. The anionic starch aerogels had the highest amount of phenolic compounds released when compared to the native starch aerogels. The starch-based bioactive aerogels showed potential to be applied in food packaging as water absorbent and as a carrier of phenolic compounds.

Biorefinery Approach for Aerogels

According to the International Energy Agency, biorefinery is "the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of marketable bio-based products (chemicals, materials) and bioenergy (fuels, power, heat)". In this review, we survey how the biorefinery approach can be applied to highly porous and nanostructured materials, namely aerogels. Historically, aerogels were first developed using inorganic matter. Subsequently, synthetic polymers were also employed. At the beginning of the 21st century, new aerogels were created based on biomass. Which sources of biomass can be used to make aerogels and how? This review answers these questions, paying special attention to bio-aerogels' environmental and biomedical applications. The article is a result of fruitful exchanges in the frame of the European project COST Action "CA 18125 AERoGELS: Advanced Engineering and Research of aeroGels for Environment and Life Sciences".

In vitro bioaccessibility of fish oil-loaded hollow solid lipid micro- and nanoparticles

Fish oil-loaded hollow solid lipid micro- and nanoparticles were prepared by atomization of the CO2-expanded lipid mixture. The obtained particles were spherical and free-flowing with an average particle size of 6.9 μm. Fish oil loading efficiency was achieved at 92.3% (w/w). The in vitro digestive stability, lipid digestibility and EPA and DHA bioaccessibility of the fish oil-loaded particles were examined using an in vitro sequential digestion model. The mean particle diameter increased markedly after oral (15.2 μm) and gastric (32.4 μm) digestion and then decreased after the small intestinal stage (24.0 μm). Fish oil-loaded particles remained spherical and intact but mainly agglomerated on the top phase throughout the oral and gastric digestion. However, a mixed digesta was formed after the small intestinal digestion, which contained digested broken particle pieces, undigested fish oil-loaded particles, free fatty acids, monoacylglycerols and micelles. The extent of lipolysis was significantly increased for the 30% fish oil-loaded particles as compared to physical mixtures of empty hollow solid lipid particles or bulk FHSO and fish oil (p < 0.05). Moreover, EPA and DHA bioaccessibility was significantly improved from 9.7 to 18.2% with the 30% fish oil-loaded particles (p < 0.05).

Nutraceutical nanodelivery; an insight into the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of different bioactive compounds loaded within nanocarriers

Nanofoods is a current concept that is based on the application of nanotechnologies in the preparation of safe foods, with superior nutritional and sensory characteristics, and capable of providing multiple health benefits. In line with the principles of this concept, food scientists have focused on developing new types of nano biosystems that can contribute to increasing the bioavailability of bioactive compounds used in food fortification. Numerous research teams have investigated the main factors limiting oral bioavailability including: bioaccessibility, absorption and transformation of bioactive compounds and bioactive-loaded nanocarriers. The physicochemical processes involved in the factors limiting oral bioavailability have been extensively studied, such asthe release, solubility and interaction of bioactive compounds and nanocarriers during food digestion, transport mechanisms of bioactive compounds and nanoparticles through intestinal epithelial cells as well as the chemical and biochemical transformations in phase I and phase II reactions. In this comprehensive review, the physicochemical processes involved in the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of different encapsulated bioactive compounds, that play an important role in human health, will be explained including polyphenols, phytosterols, carotenoids, vitamins and minerals. In particular, the mechanisms involved in the cellular uptake of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers including transcellular transport (diffusion, endocytosis, pinocytosis, transcytosis, phagocytosis), paracellular transport (through the "tight junctions" between epithelial cells), and the active transport of bioactive compounds under the action of membrane transporters are highlighted.

A novel and green nanoparticle formation approach to forming low-crystallinity curcumin nanoparticles to improve curcumin's bioaccessibility

Health-promoting effects of curcumin are well-known; however, curcumin has a very low bioavailability due to its crystalline structure. The main objective of this study was to develop a novel green nanoparticle formation method to generate low-crystallinity curcumin nanoparticles to enhance the bioavailability of curcumin. Nanoporous starch aerogels (NSAs) (surface area of 60 m²/g, pore size of 20 nm, density of 0.11 g/cm³, and porosity of 93%) were employed as a mold to produce curcumin nanoparticles with the help of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂). The average particle size of the curcumin nanoparticles was 66 nm. Impregnation into NSAs decreased the crystallinity of curcumin and did not create any chemical bonding between curcumin nanoparticles and the NSA matrix. The highest impregnation capacity was 224.2 mg curcumin/g NSA. Curcumin nanoparticles significantly enhanced the bioaccessibility of curcumin by 173-fold when compared to the original curcumin. The concentration of curcumin in the bioaccessible fraction was improved from 0.003 to 0.125 mg/mL by impregnation of curcumin into NSAs (42-fold). This is a novel approach to produce food grade curcumin nanoparticles with reduced crystallinity and maximize the utilization of curcumin due to increased bioaccessibility.