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Parmeggiani F, Brenna E, Colombo D, Gatti FG, Tentori F, Tessaro D. "A Study in Yellow": Investigations in the Stereoselectivity of Ene-Reductases. Chembiochem 2021; 23:e202100445. [PMID: 34586700 PMCID: PMC9292831 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ene‐reductases from the Old Yellow Enzyme (OYE) superfamily are a well‐known and efficient biocatalytic alternative for the asymmetric reduction of C=C bonds. Considering the broad variety of substituents that can be tolerated, and the excellent stereoselectivities achieved, it is apparent why these enzymes are so appealing for preparative and industrial applications. Different classes of C=C bonds activated by at least one electron‐withdrawing group have been shown to be accepted by these versatile biocatalysts in the last decades, affording a vast range of chiral intermediates employed in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, flavours, fragrances and fine chemicals. In order to access both enantiomers of reduced products, stereodivergent pairs of OYEs are desirable, but their natural occurrence is limited. The detailed knowledge of the stereochemical course of the reaction can uncover alternative strategies to orient the selectivity via mutagenesis, evolution, and substrate engineering. An overview of the ongoing studies on OYE‐mediated bioreductions will be provided, with particular focus on stereochemical investigations by deuterium labelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Parmeggiani
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Brenna
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Danilo Colombo
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Francesco G Gatti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Francesca Tentori
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Davide Tessaro
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali ed Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133, Milano, Italy
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2
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Hall M. Enzymatic strategies for asymmetric synthesis. RSC Chem Biol 2021; 2:958-989. [PMID: 34458820 PMCID: PMC8341948 DOI: 10.1039/d1cb00080b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes, at the turn of the 21st century, are gaining a momentum. Especially in the field of synthetic organic chemistry, a broad variety of biocatalysts are being applied in an increasing number of processes running at up to industrial scale. In addition to the advantages of employing enzymes under environmentally friendly reaction conditions, synthetic chemists are recognizing the value of enzymes connected to the exquisite selectivity of these natural (or engineered) catalysts. The use of hydrolases in enantioselective protocols paved the way to the application of enzymes in asymmetric synthesis, in particular in the context of biocatalytic (dynamic) kinetic resolutions. After two decades of impressive development, the field is now mature to propose a panel of catalytically diverse enzymes for (i) stereoselective reactions with prochiral compounds, such as double bond reduction and bond forming reactions, (ii) formal enantioselective replacement of one of two enantiotopic groups of prochiral substrates, as well as (iii) atroposelective reactions with noncentrally chiral compounds. In this review, the major enzymatic strategies broadly applicable in the asymmetric synthesis of optically pure chiral compounds are presented, with a focus on the reactions developed within the past decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Hall
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz Heinrichstrasse 28 8010 Graz Austria
- Field of Excellence BioHealth - University of Graz Austria
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3
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Yan Y, Li S, Wang J. Oxidative Alkoxylation/Dehydrogenation of Unactivated Cyclic Ketones with Simple Alcohols: Direct Route to α‐Alkoxy Cycloenones. European J Org Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202001140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yizhe Yan
- School of Food and Biological Engineering Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Production and Safety Henan Key Laboratory of Cold Chain Food Quality and Safety Control Zhengzhou University of Light Industry 450000 Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Shaoqing Li
- School of Food and Biological Engineering Henan Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Production and Safety Henan Key Laboratory of Cold Chain Food Quality and Safety Control Zhengzhou University of Light Industry 450000 Zhengzhou P. R. China
| | - Jianyong Wang
- School of Light Industry and Engineering Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) 250353 Jinan P. R. China
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4
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Abstract
Flavoenzymes are broadly employed as biocatalysts for a large variety of reactions, owing to the chemical versatility of the flavin cofactor. Oxidases set aside, many flavoenzymes require a source of electrons in form of the biological reductant nicotinamide NAD(P)H in order to initiate catalysis via the reduced flavin. Chemists can take advantage of the reactivity of reduced flavins with oxygen to carry out monooxygenation reactions, while the reduced flavin can also be used for formal hydrogenation reactions. The main advantage of these reactions compared to chemical approaches is the frequent regio-, chemo- and stereo-selectivity of the biocatalysts, which allows the synthesis of chiral molecules in optically active form. This chapter provides an overview of the variety of biocatalytic processes that have been developed with flavoenzymes, with a particular focus on nicotinamide-dependent enzymes. The diversity of molecules obtained is highlighted and in several cases, strategies that allow control of the stereochemical outcome of the reactions are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Hall
- Department of Chemistry, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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5
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Mohanta N, Chaudhari MB, Digrawal NK, Gnanaprakasam B. Rapid and Multigram Synthesis of Vinylogous Esters under Continuous Flow: An Access to Transetherification and Reverse Reaction of Vinylogous Esters. Org Process Res Dev 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.oprd.9b00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nirmala Mohanta
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Moreshwar B. Chaudhari
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Naveen Kumar Digrawal
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Boopathy Gnanaprakasam
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
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6
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Li Z, Wang Z, Wang Y, Wu X, Lu H, Huang Z, Chen F. Substituent Position‐Controlled Stereoselectivity in Enzymatic Reduction of Diaryl‐ and Aryl(heteroaryl)methanones. Adv Synth Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201801543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhining Li
- Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Department of ChemistryFudan University 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Catalysis of Chiral Drugs 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
| | - Zexu Wang
- Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Department of ChemistryFudan University 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Catalysis of Chiral Drugs 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhan Wang
- Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Department of ChemistryFudan University 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaofan Wu
- College of Chemical EngineeringFuzhou University 2 Xueyuan Road Fuzhou 350100 People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life SciencesFudan University 2005 Songhu Road Shanghai 200438 People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Microorganisms 2005 Songhu Road Shanghai 200438 People's Republic of China
| | - Zedu Huang
- Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Department of ChemistryFudan University 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Catalysis of Chiral Drugs 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
| | - Fener Chen
- Engineering Center of Catalysis and Synthesis for Chiral Molecules, Department of ChemistryFudan University 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Industrial Asymmetric Catalysis of Chiral Drugs 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433 People's Republic of China
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7
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Nugent J, Matoušová E, Banwell MG, Willis AC. The Palladium-Catalyzed Intramolecular Alder-Ene Reactions of O- and N-Linked 1,6-Enynes Incorporating Triethylsilyl Capping Groups. J Org Chem 2017; 82:12569-12589. [PMID: 29065263 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b02355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A series of O- and N-linked 1,6-enynes (e.g., 11) have been prepared with each subjected to a palladium-catalyzed intramolecular Alder-ene (IMAE) reaction, thus producing the isomeric and cyclic 1,4-diene (e.g., 12). These processes proceed most effectively when a triethylsilyl group is attached to the alkyne moiety and so generating alkenylsilanes that can be manipulated in various useful ways, including via iododesilylation (to give, for example, iodoalkene 62).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Nugent
- Research School of Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Studies, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Eliška Matoušová
- Research School of Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Studies, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Martin G Banwell
- Research School of Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Studies, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Anthony C Willis
- Research School of Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Studies, The Australian National University , Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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8
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Rüthlein E, Classen T, Dobnikar L, Schölzel M, Pietruszka J. Finding the Selectivity Switch - A Rational Approach towards Stereocomplementary Variants of the Ene Reductase YqjM. Adv Synth Catal 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201500149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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9
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Reß T, Hummel W, Hanlon SP, Iding H, Gröger H. The Organic-Synthetic Potential of Recombinant Ene Reductases: Substrate-Scope Evaluation and Process Optimization. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201402903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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10
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de Miranda AS, Simon RC, Grischek B, de Paula GC, Horta BAC, de Miranda LSM, Kroutil W, Kappe CO, de Souza ROMA. Chiral Chlorohydrins from the Biocatalyzed Reduction of Chloroketones: Chiral Building Blocks for Antiretroviral Drugs. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201403023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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11
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Nestl BM, Hammer SC, Nebel BA, Hauer B. New generation of biocatalysts for organic synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:3070-95. [PMID: 24520044 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201302195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The use of enzymes as catalysts for the preparation of novel compounds has received steadily increasing attention over the past few years. High demands are placed on the identification of new biocatalysts for organic synthesis. The catalysis of more ambitious reactions reflects the high expectations of this field of research. Enzymes play an increasingly important role as biocatalysts in the synthesis of key intermediates for the pharmaceutical and chemical industry, and new enzymatic technologies and processes have been established. Enzymes are an important part of the spectrum of catalysts available for synthetic chemistry. The advantages and applications of the most recent and attractive biocatalysts--reductases, transaminases, ammonia lyases, epoxide hydrolases, and dehalogenases--will be discussed herein and exemplified by the syntheses of interesting compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina M Nestl
- Technische Biochemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart (Germany)
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12
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Nestl BM, Hammer SC, Nebel BA, Hauer B. Biokatalysatoren für die organische Synthese - die neue Generation. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201302195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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13
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Huang DW, Lo YH, Liu YH, Peng SM, Liu ST. Cyclometalation of Anthyridine-Based Ligands with Dirhodium Acetates: Structure and Catalytic Activity. Organometallics 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/om400508a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Da-wei Huang
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 106
| | - Ying-Hao Lo
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 106
| | - Yi-Hung Liu
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 106
| | - Shie-Ming Peng
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 106
| | - Shiuh-Tzung Liu
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan 106
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14
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Winkler CK, Clay D, Davies S, O'Neill P, McDaid P, Debarge S, Steflik J, Karmilowicz M, Wong JW, Faber K. Chemoenzymatic asymmetric synthesis of pregabalin precursors via asymmetric bioreduction of β-cyanoacrylate esters using ene-reductases. J Org Chem 2013; 78:1525-33. [PMID: 23316696 PMCID: PMC3579311 DOI: 10.1021/jo302484p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The asymmetric bioreduction of a library of β-cyanoacrylate
esters using ene-reductases was studied with the aim to provide a
biocatalytic route to precursors for GABA analogues, such as pregabalin.
The stereochemical outcome could be controlled by substrate-engineering
through size-variation of the ester moiety and by employing stereochemically
pure (E)- or (Z)-isomers, which
allowed to access both enantiomers of each product in up to quantitative
conversion in enantiomerically pure form. In addition, stereoselectivities
and conversions could be improved by mutant variants of OPR1, and
the utility of the system was demonstrated by preparative-scale applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph K Winkler
- Department of Chemistry, Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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15
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Brenna E, Cosi SL, Ferrandi EE, Gatti FG, Monti D, Parmeggiani F, Sacchetti A. Substrate scope and synthetic applications of the enantioselective reduction of α-alkyl-β-arylenones mediated by Old Yellow Enzymes. Org Biomol Chem 2013; 11:2988-96. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ob40076j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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17
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Tasnádi G, Winkler CK, Clay D, Sultana N, Fabian WMF, Hall M, Ditrich K, Faber K. A substrate-driven approach to determine reactivities of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic esters towards asymmetric bioreduction. Chemistry 2012; 18:10362-7. [PMID: 22736443 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201200990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Revised: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The degree of C=C bond activation in the asymmetric bioreduction of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic esters by ene-reductases was studied, and general recommendations to render these "borderline-substrates" more reactive towards enzymatic reduction are proposed. The concept of "supported substrate activation" was developed. In general, an additional α-halogenated substituent proved to be beneficial for enzymatic activity, whereas β-alkyl or β-aryl substituents were detrimental for the reactivity of nonhalogenated substrates, and α-cyano groups showed little effect. The alcohol moiety of the ester functionality was found to have a strong influence on the reaction rate. Overall, activities were determined by both steric and electronic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Tasnádi
- ACIB GmbH c/o, Biocatalytic Synthesis, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010-Graz, Austria
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18
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Winkler CK, Tasnádi G, Clay D, Hall M, Faber K. Asymmetric bioreduction of activated alkenes to industrially relevant optically active compounds. J Biotechnol 2012; 162:381-9. [PMID: 22498437 PMCID: PMC3521962 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2012.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Ene-reductases from the ‘Old Yellow Enzyme’ family of flavoproteins catalyze the asymmetric reduction of various α,β-unsaturated compounds at the expense of a nicotinamide cofactor. They have been applied to the synthesis of valuable enantiopure products, including chiral building blocks with broad industrial applications, terpenoids, amino acid derivatives and fragrances. The combination of these highly stereoselective biocatalysts with a cofactor recycling system has allowed the development of cost-effective methods for the generation of optically active molecules, which is strengthened by the availability of stereo-complementary enzyme homologues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph K Winkler
- Department of Chemistry, Organic & Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
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19
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Tasnádi G, Winkler CK, Clay D, Hall M, Faber K. Reductive dehalogenation of β-haloacrylic ester derivatives mediated by ene-reductases. Catal Sci Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cy20079a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Hall M, Bommarius AS. Enantioenriched Compounds via Enzyme-Catalyzed Redox Reactions. Chem Rev 2011; 111:4088-110. [DOI: 10.1021/cr200013n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Hall
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Andreas S. Bommarius
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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21
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Stueckler C, Winkler CK, Hall M, Hauer B, Bonnekessel M, Zangger K, Faber K. Stereo-Controlled Asymmetric Bioreduction of α,β-Dehydroamino Acid Derivatives. Adv Synth Catal 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201100042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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22
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Yanto Y, Winkler CK, Lohr S, Hall M, Faber K, Bommarius AS. Asymmetric Bioreduction of Alkenes Using Ene–Reductases YersER and KYE1 and Effects of Organic Solvents. Org Lett 2011; 13:2540-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ol200394p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yanto Yanto
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0363, United States, and Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Christoph K. Winkler
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0363, United States, and Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Stephanie Lohr
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0363, United States, and Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Mélanie Hall
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0363, United States, and Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Kurt Faber
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0363, United States, and Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Andreas S. Bommarius
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, 315 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0363, United States, and Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
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