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Walker KL, Loach RP, Movassaghi M. Total synthesis of complex 2,5-diketopiperazine alkaloids. THE ALKALOIDS. CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY 2023; 90:159-206. [PMID: 37716796 PMCID: PMC10955524 DOI: 10.1016/bs.alkal.2023.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
The 2,5-diketopiperazine (DKP) motif is present in many biologically relevant, complex natural products. The cyclodipeptide substructure offers structural rigidity and stability to proteolysis that makes these compounds promising candidates for medical applications. Due to their fascinating molecular architecture, synthetic organic chemists have focused significant effort on the total synthesis of these compounds. This review covers many such efforts on the total synthesis of DKP containing complex alkaloid natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Walker
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Richard P Loach
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Mohammad Movassaghi
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States.
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2
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García-Domínguez P, Lorenzo P, Álvarez R, de Lera AR. Total Synthesis of the Proposed Structure of (-)-Novofumigatamide, Isomers Thereof, and Analogues. Part I. J Org Chem 2022; 87:12510-12527. [PMID: 36137268 PMCID: PMC9552234 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c01227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The total synthesis of the suggested structure of (-)-novofumigatamide, a natural product containing a C3-reverse prenylated N-acetyl-exo-hexahydropyrrolo[2,3-b]indole motif fused to a 10-membered ring lactam, was achieved using the macrolactam formation in advance of a diastereoselective bromocyclization and reverse prenylation steps. Since the NMR data of the synthetic sample did not match those of the natural product, the endo-bromo precursor of a N-Boc analogue and additional diastereomers derived from l-Trp were also synthesized. Five alternative synthetic routes, which differed in the order of final key steps used for the construction of the 10-membered ring lactam and the hexahydropyrrolo[2,3-b]indole framework within the polycyclic skeleton and also in the amide bond selected for the ring-closing of the macrolactam, were thoroughly explored. Much to our dismay, the lack of spectroscopic correlations between the proposed structure of natural (-)-novofumigatamide and the synthetic products suggested a different connectivity between the atoms. Additional synthetic efforts to assemble alternative structures of the natural product and isomers thereof (see accompanying paper; DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c01228) further highlighted the frustrating endeavors toward the identification of a natural product.
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García-Domínguez P, Areal A, Alvarez R, de Lera AR. Chemical synthesis in competition with global genome mining and heterologous expression for the preparation of dimeric tryptophan-derived 2,5-dioxopiperazines. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:1172-1225. [PMID: 35470828 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00006g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Covering: up to the end of 2021Within the 2,5-dioxopiperazines-containing natural products, those generated from tryptophan allow further structural diversification due to the rich chemical reactivity of the indole heterocycle. The great variety of natural products, ranging from simple dimeric bispyrrolidinoindoline dioxopiperazines and tryptophan-derived dioxopiperazine/pyrrolidinoindoline dioxopiperazine analogs to complex polycyclic downstream metabolites containing transannular connections between the subunits, will be covered. These natural products are constructed by Nature using hybrid polyketide synthase (PKS) and nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) assembly lines. Mining of microbial genome sequences has more recently allowed the study of the metabolic routes and the discovery of their hidden biosynthetic potential. The competition (ideally, also the combined efforts) between their isolation from the cultures of the producing microorganisms after global genome mining and heterologous expression and the synthetic campaigns, has more recently allowed the successful generation and structural confirmation of these natural products. Their biological activities as well as their proposed biogenetic routes and computational studies on biogenesis will also be covered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea Areal
- CINBIO and Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
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Souto JA, Román D, Domínguez M, Lera ÁR. Synthetic Studies on Alotamide A: Construction of
N
‐Demethylalotamide A. European J Org Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202101104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- José A. Souto
- CINBIO Universidade de Vigo Departamento de Química Orgánica 36310 Vigo España
| | - David Román
- CINBIO Universidade de Vigo Departamento de Química Orgánica 36310 Vigo España
| | - Marta Domínguez
- CINBIO Universidade de Vigo Departamento de Química Orgánica 36310 Vigo España
| | - Ángel R. Lera
- CINBIO Universidade de Vigo Departamento de Química Orgánica 36310 Vigo España
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Oeser P, Koudelka J, Petrenko A, Tobrman T. Recent Progress Concerning the N-Arylation of Indoles. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26165079. [PMID: 34443667 PMCID: PMC8402097 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26165079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the current state-of-the-art procedures in terms of the preparation of N-arylindoles. After a short introduction, the transition-metal-free procedures available for the N-arylation of indoles are briefly discussed. Then, the nickel-catalyzed and palladium-catalyzed N-arylation of indoles are both discussed. In the next section, copper-catalyzed procedures for the N-arylation of indoles are described. The final section focuses on recent findings in the field of biologically active N-arylindoles.
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Lin X, Vigalok A, Vedernikov AN. Aryl C(sp 2)-X Coupling (X = C, N, O, Cl) and Facile Control of N-Mono- and N,N-Diarylation of Primary Alkylamines at a Pt(IV) Center. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:20725-20734. [PMID: 33226792 PMCID: PMC7884019 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c09452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
We
present the first example of an unprecedented and fast aryl
C(sp2)–X reductive elimination from a series of
isolated Pt(IV) aryl complexes (Ar = p-FC6H4) LPtIVF(py)(Ar)X (X = CN, Cl, 4-OC6H4NO2) and LPtIVF2(Ar)(HX)
(X = NHAlk; Alk = n-Bu, PhCH2, cyclo-C6H11, t-Bu, cyclopropylmethyl)
bearing a bulky bidentate 2-[bis(adamant-1-yl)phosphino]phenoxide
ligand (L). The C(sp2)–X reductive elimination reactions
of all isolated Pt(IV) complexes follow first-order kinetics and were
modeled using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. When a
difluoro complex LPtIVF2(Ar)(py) is treated
with TMS–X (TMS = trimethylsilyl; X= NMe2, SPh,
OPh, CCPh) it also gives the corresponding products of the Ar–X
coupling but without observable LPtIVF(py)(Ar)X intermediates.
Remarkably, the LPtIVF2(Ar)(HX) complexes with
alkylamine ligands (HX = NH2Alk) form selectively either
mono- (ArNHAlk) or diarylated (Ar2NAlk) products in the
presence or absence of an added Et3N, respectively. This
method allows for a one-pot preparation of diarylalkylamine bearing
different aryl groups. These findings were also applied in unprecedented
mono- and di-N-arylation of amino acid derivatives (lysine and tryptophan)
under very mild conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxi Lin
- School of Chemistry, The Sackler Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Arkadi Vigalok
- School of Chemistry, The Sackler Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Andrei N Vedernikov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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Shende VV, Khatri Y, Newmister SA, Sanders JN, Lindovska P, Yu F, Doyon TJ, Kim J, Houk KN, Movassaghi M, Sherman DH. Structure and Function of NzeB, a Versatile C-C and C-N Bond-Forming Diketopiperazine Dimerase. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:17413-17424. [PMID: 32786740 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c06312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The dimeric diketopiperazine (DKPs) alkaloids are a diverse family of natural products (NPs) whose unique structural architectures and biological activities have inspired the development of new synthetic methodologies to access these molecules. However, catalyst-controlled methods that enable the selective formation of constitutional and stereoisomeric dimers from a single monomer are lacking. To resolve this long-standing synthetic challenge, we sought to characterize the biosynthetic enzymes that assemble these NPs for application in biocatalytic syntheses. Genome mining enabled identification of the cytochrome P450, NzeB (Streptomyces sp. NRRL F-5053), which catalyzes both intermolecular carbon-carbon (C-C) and carbon-nitrogen (C-N) bond formation. To identify the molecular basis for the flexible site-selectivity, stereoselectivity, and chemoselectivity of NzeB, we obtained high-resolution crystal structures (1.5 Å) of the protein in complex with native and non-native substrates. This, to our knowledge, represents the first crystal structure of an oxidase catalyzing direct, intermolecular C-H amination. Site-directed mutagenesis was utilized to assess the role individual active-site residues play in guiding selective DKP dimerization. Finally, computational approaches were employed to evaluate plausible mechanisms regarding NzeB function and its ability to catalyze both C-C and C-N bond formation. These results provide a structural and computational rationale for the catalytic versatility of NzeB, as well as new insights into variables that control selectivity of CYP450 diketopiperazine dimerases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jacob N Sanders
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Petra Lindovska
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | | | - Justin Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - K N Houk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Mohammad Movassaghi
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Le Roch A, Chan H, Gagnon A. Copper‐Promoted N‐Arylation of the Indole Side Chain of Tryptophan Using Triarylbismuthines. European J Org Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202000667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Le Roch
- Département de chimie Université du Québec à Montréal C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre‐Ville H3C 3P8 Montréal Québec Canada
| | - Hwai‐Chien Chan
- Département de chimie Université du Québec à Montréal C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre‐Ville H3C 3P8 Montréal Québec Canada
| | - Alexandre Gagnon
- Département de chimie Université du Québec à Montréal C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre‐Ville H3C 3P8 Montréal Québec Canada
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