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Marine Natural Products in Clinical Use. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20080528. [PMID: 36005531 PMCID: PMC9410185 DOI: 10.3390/md20080528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine natural products are potent and promising sources of drugs among other natural products of plant, animal, and microbial origin. To date, 20 drugs from marine sources are in clinical use. Most approved marine compounds are antineoplastic, but some are also used for chronic neuropathic pain, for heparin overdosage, as haptens and vaccine carriers, and for omega-3 fatty-acid supplementation in the diet. Marine drugs have diverse structural characteristics and mechanisms of action. A considerable increase in the number of marine drugs approved for clinical use has occurred in the past few decades, which may be attributed to increasing research on marine compounds in laboratories across the world. In the present manuscript, we comprehensively studied all marine drugs that have been successfully used in the clinic. Researchers and clinicians are hopeful to discover many more drugs, as a large number of marine natural compounds are being investigated in preclinical and clinical studies.
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Systemic, Intrathecal, and Intracerebroventricular Antihyperalgesic Effects of the Calcium Channel Blocker CTK 01512–2 Toxin in Persistent Pain Models. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:4436-4452. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02864-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Nguyen PT, Nguyen HM, Wagner KM, Stewart RG, Singh V, Thapa P, Chen YJ, Lillya MW, Ton AT, Kondo R, Ghetti A, Pennington MW, Hammock B, Griffith TN, Sack JT, Wulff H, Yarov-Yarovoy V. Computational design of peptides to target Na V1.7 channel with high potency and selectivity for the treatment of pain. eLife 2022; 11:81727. [PMID: 36576241 PMCID: PMC9831606 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The voltage-gated sodium NaV1.7 channel plays a key role as a mediator of action potential propagation in C-fiber nociceptors and is an established molecular target for pain therapy. ProTx-II is a potent and moderately selective peptide toxin from tarantula venom that inhibits human NaV1.7 activation. Here we used available structural and experimental data to guide Rosetta design of potent and selective ProTx-II-based peptide inhibitors of human NaV1.7 channels. Functional testing of designed peptides using electrophysiology identified the PTx2-3127 and PTx2-3258 peptides with IC50s of 7 nM and 4 nM for hNaV1.7 and more than 1000-fold selectivity over human NaV1.1, NaV1.3, NaV1.4, NaV1.5, NaV1.8, and NaV1.9 channels. PTx2-3127 inhibits NaV1.7 currents in mouse and human sensory neurons and shows efficacy in rat models of chronic and thermal pain when administered intrathecally. Rationally designed peptide inhibitors of human NaV1.7 channels have transformative potential to define a new class of biologics to treat pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuong T Nguyen
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Hai M Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Karen M Wagner
- Department of Entomology and Nematology & Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Robert G Stewart
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Vikrant Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Parashar Thapa
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Yi-Je Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Mark W Lillya
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | | | | | | | | | - Bruce Hammock
- Department of Entomology and Nematology & Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Theanne N Griffith
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Jon T Sack
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States,Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Heike Wulff
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
| | - Vladimir Yarov-Yarovoy
- Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California DavisDavisUnited States,Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of California DavisDavisUnited States,Biophysics Graduate Group, University of California DavisDavisUnited States
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Matis G, De Negri P, Dupoiron D, Likar R, Zuidema X, Rasche D. Intrathecal pain management with ziconotide: Time for consensus? Brain Behav 2021; 11 Suppl 1:e02055. [PMID: 33690987 PMCID: PMC7943290 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This article summarizes recommendations made by six pain specialists who discussed the rationale for ziconotide intrathecal analgesia (ITA) and the requirement for evidence-based guidance on its use, from a European perspective. Riemser Pharma GmbH (Greifswald, Germany), which holds the European marketing authorization for ziconotide, hosted the meeting. The group agreed that ITA is under-used in Europe, adding that ziconotide ITA has potential to be a first-line alternative to morphine; both are already first-line options in the USA. Ziconotide ITA (initiated using a low-dose, slow-titration approach) is suitable for many patients with noncancer- or cancer-related chronic refractory pain and no history of psychosis. Adopting ziconotide as first-line ITA could reduce opioid usage in these patient populations. The group advocated a risk-reduction strategy for all candidate patients, including compulsory prescreening for neuropsychosis, and requested US-European alignment of the licensed starting dose for ziconotide: the low-and-slow approach practiced in the USA has a better tolerability profile than the fixed high starting dose licensed in Europe. Of note, an update to the European Summary of Product Characteristics is anticipated in early 2021. The group acknowledged that the Polyanalgesic Consensus Conference (PACC) treatment algorithms for ziconotide ITA provide useful guidance, but recommendations tailored specifically for European settings are required. Before a consensus process can formally begin, the group called for additional European prospective studies to investigate ziconotide in low-and-slow dosing strategies, in different patient settings. Such data would enable European guidance to have the most appropriate evidence at its core.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Matis
- Department of Stereotactic and Functional NeurosurgeryFaculty of Medicine and University Hospital CologneUniversity of CologneCologneGermany
| | - Pasquale De Negri
- Department of Anaesthesia, Intensive Care and Pain MedicineSan Giuliano HospitalGiugliano, NaplesItaly
| | - Denis Dupoiron
- Anesthesiology and Pain DepartmentInstitut de Cancérologie de l’OuestICO Paul PapinAngersFrance
| | - Rudolf Likar
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive CareKlagenfurt ClinicKlagenfurtAustria
| | - Xander Zuidema
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain MedicineDiakonessenhuis Utrecht/ZeistZeistThe Netherlands
| | - Dirk Rasche
- Functional Neurosurgery and Neurosurgical Pain TherapyUniversity Hospital Schleswig‐HolsteinLübeckGermany
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Chartier M, Desgagné M, Sousbie M, Côté J, Longpré JM, Marsault E, Sarret P. Design, Structural Optimization, and Characterization of the First Selective Macrocyclic Neurotensin Receptor Type 2 Non-opioid Analgesic. J Med Chem 2021; 64:2110-2124. [PMID: 33538583 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neurotensin (NT) receptor type 2 (NTS2) represents an attractive target for the development of new NT-based analgesics. Here, we report the synthesis and functional in vivo characterization of the first constrained NTS2-selective macrocyclic NT analog. While most chemical optimization studies rely on the NT(8-13) fragment, we focused on NT(7-12) as a scaffold to design NTS2-selective macrocyclic peptides. Replacement of Ile12 by Leu, and Pro7/Pro10 by allylglycine residues followed by cyclization via ring-closing metathesis led to macrocycle 4, which exhibits good affinity for NTS2 (50 nM), high selectivity over NTS1 (>100 μM), and improved stability compared to NT(8-13). In vivo profiling in rats reveals that macrocycle 4 produces potent analgesia in three distinct rodent pain models, without causing the undesired effects associated with NTS1 activation. We further provide evidence of its non-opioid antinociceptive activity, therefore highlighting the strong therapeutic potential of NTS2-selective analogs for the management of acute and chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magali Chartier
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Michael Desgagné
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Marc Sousbie
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Jérôme Côté
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Jean-Michel Longpré
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Eric Marsault
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Philippe Sarret
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec J1H 5N4, Canada
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Joviano-Santos JV, Valadão PAC, Magalhães-Gomes MPS, Fernandes LF, Diniz DM, Machado TCG, Soares KB, Ladeira MS, Miranda AS, Massensini AR, Gomez MV, Guatimosim C. Protective effect of a spider recombinant toxin in a murine model of Huntington's disease. Neuropeptides 2021; 85:102111. [PMID: 33333486 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2020.102111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal calcium influx and glutamatergic excitotoxicity have been extensively associated with neuronal death in Huntington's disease (HD), a genetic movement disorder. Currently, there is no effective treatment for this fatal condition. The neurotoxin Phα1β has demonstrated therapeutic effects as a calcium channel blocker, for example during pain control. However, little is known about its neuroprotective effect in HD. Herein, we investigated if Phα1β is effective in inhibiting neuronal cell death in the BACHD mouse model for HD. We performed intrastriatal injection of Phα1β in WT and BACHD mice. No side effects or unusual behaviors were observed upon Phα1β administration. Using three different motor behavior tests, we observed that injection of the toxin in BACHD mice greatly improved the animals' motor-force as seen in the Wire-hang test, and also the locomotor performance, according to the Open field test. NeuN labeling for mature neuron detection revealed that Phα1β toxin promoted neuronal preservation in the striatum and cortex, when injected locally. Intrastriatal injection of Phα1β was not able to preserve neurons from the spinal cord and also not revert muscle atrophy in BACHD mice. Finally, we observed that Phα1β might, at least in part, exert its protective effect by decreasing L-glutamate, measured in cerebrospinal fluid. Our data provide evidence of a novel neuroprotector effect of Phα1β, paving a path for the development of new approaches to treat HD motor symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julliane V Joviano-Santos
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Priscila A C Valadão
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Matheus P S Magalhães-Gomes
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Departamento de Medicina, Faculdade Ciências Médicas de Minas Gerais, FCMMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Lorena F Fernandes
- Núcleo de Neurociências, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Thatiane C G Machado
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Kivia B Soares
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Marina S Ladeira
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Aline S Miranda
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Andre R Massensini
- Núcleo de Neurociências, Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Cristina Guatimosim
- Laboratório de Biologia da Neurotransmissão, Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Banik RK, Engle MP. Ziconotide for Management of Cancer Pain Refractory to Pharmacotherapy: An Update. PAIN MEDICINE 2020; 21:3253-3259. [PMID: 32940675 DOI: 10.1093/pm/pnaa251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ratan K Banik
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Mitchell P Engle
- Institute of Precision Pain Medicine, Corpus Christi, Texas, USA
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Herzig V, Cristofori-Armstrong B, Israel MR, Nixon SA, Vetter I, King GF. Animal toxins - Nature's evolutionary-refined toolkit for basic research and drug discovery. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 181:114096. [PMID: 32535105 PMCID: PMC7290223 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 06/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Venomous animals have evolved toxins that interfere with specific components of their victim's core physiological systems, thereby causing biological dysfunction that aids in prey capture, defense against predators, or other roles such as intraspecific competition. Many animal lineages evolved venom systems independently, highlighting the success of this strategy. Over the course of evolution, toxins with exceptional specificity and high potency for their intended molecular targets have prevailed, making venoms an invaluable and almost inexhaustible source of bioactive molecules, some of which have found use as pharmacological tools, human therapeutics, and bioinsecticides. Current biomedically-focused research on venoms is directed towards their use in delineating the physiological role of toxin molecular targets such as ion channels and receptors, studying or treating human diseases, targeting vectors of human diseases, and treating microbial and parasitic infections. We provide examples of each of these areas of venom research, highlighting the potential that venom molecules hold for basic research and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Herzig
- School of Science & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia.
| | | | - Mathilde R Israel
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Samantha A Nixon
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Irina Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia.
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Gallo A, Boni R, Tosti E. Neurobiological activity of conotoxins via sodium channel modulation. Toxicon 2020; 187:47-56. [PMID: 32877656 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Conotoxins (CnTX) are bioactive peptides produced by marine molluscs belonging to Conus genus. The biochemical structure of these venomous peptides is characterized by a low number of amino acids linked with disulfide bonds formed by a high degree of post-translational modifications and glycosylation steps which increase the diversity and rate of evolution of these molecules. CnTX different isoforms are known to target ion channels and, in particular, voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels (Nav channels). These are transmembrane proteins fundamental in excitable cells for generating the depolarization of plasma membrane potential known as action potential which propagates electrical signals in muscles and nerves for physiological functions. Disorders in Nav channel activity have been shown to induce neurological pathologies and pain states. Here, we describe the current knowledge of CnTX isoform modulation of the Nav channel activity, the mechanism of action and the potential therapeutic use of these toxins in counteracting neurological dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Gallo
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Naples, Italy.
| | - Raffele Boni
- Department of Sciences, University of Basilicata, 85100, Potenza, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Tosti
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121, Naples, Italy.
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Brinzeu A, Berthiller J, Caillet J, Staquet H, Mertens P. Ziconotide for spinal cord injury‐related pain. Eur J Pain 2019; 23:1688-1700. [DOI: 10.1002/ejp.1445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrei Brinzeu
- Neurosurgical Department Pierre Wertheimer Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon 1 University Lyon France
- Pain Center “Pierre Wertheimer” Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon Lyon France
- University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Victor Babes” Timisoara Timisoara Romania
| | - Julien Berthiller
- Neurosurgical Department Pierre Wertheimer Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon 1 University Lyon France
| | | | - Helene Staquet
- Neurosurgical Department Pierre Wertheimer Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon 1 University Lyon France
- Neurosurgical Department Beaujon University Hospital‐APHP Clichy France
| | - Patrick Mertens
- Neurosurgical Department Pierre Wertheimer Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon 1 University Lyon France
- Pain Center “Pierre Wertheimer” Hospital, Hospices Civils de Lyon Lyon France
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Abstract
Due to high prescription rates as well as the frequent use as over the counter drugs, it is of interest to consider non-opioid analgesics when evaluating the quality and appropriateness of a given overall medication. This article sums up the basic pharmacology and main adverse effects of these analgesics. Non-opioids can be further classified according to their additional mechanisms of action besides analgesia. High-dose acetylsalicylic acid, traditional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and coxibs exhibit antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties. Acetaminophen and metamizole (dipyrone) are analgesics and antipyretic agents, while metamizole exhibits also spasmolytic effects. Capsaicin and intrathecal ziconotide are pure analgesics.
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Kleinmann B, Wolter T. Managing Chronic Non-Malignant Pain in the Elderly: Intrathecal Therapy. Drugs Aging 2019; 36:789-797. [PMID: 31270686 DOI: 10.1007/s40266-019-00692-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Intrathecal drug delivery (IDD) was first described in 1981 by Onofrio, who used a pump for continuous and intrathecal delivery of morphine to treat cancer pain. Over the following four decades, many reports supported this treatment method with implanted pumps for cancer and non-cancer pain. To date, more than 300,000 pumps for pain therapy and spasticity have been implanted worldwide. This article reviews current knowledge regarding intrathecal opioid therapy, focusing particularly on the use of IDD in elderly patients. Current literature is presented, and the arguments in favor of and against this therapy in elderly patients are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Kleinmann
- Interdisciplinary Pain Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Breisacherstr. 64, 79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Tilman Wolter
- Interdisciplinary Pain Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Breisacherstr. 64, 79106, Freiburg, Germany.
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Membrane Stabilizer Medications in the Treatment of Chronic Neuropathic Pain: a Comprehensive Review. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2019; 23:37. [DOI: 10.1007/s11916-019-0774-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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