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Kalisz J, Węgrzyn K, Michalska A, Maksymiuk K. Resolution increase of ion-selective electrodes response by using a reversed amperometric setup. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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2
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Kisiel A, Michalska A, Maksymiuk K. Bypassed ion-selective electrodes – self-powered polarization for tailoring of sensor performance. Analyst 2022; 147:2764-2772. [DOI: 10.1039/d2an00458e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The bypass circuit with zinc wire induces spontaneous charge flow: oxidation of zinc and reduction of the solid contact of K-ISE. This effect is helpful in the improvement of analytical parameters of K-ISE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kisiel
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agata Michalska
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Maksymiuk
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
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3
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Kałuża D, Michalska A, Maksymiuk K. Solid‐Contact Ion‐Selective Electrodes Paving the Way for Improved Non‐Zero Current Sensors: A Minireview. ChemElectroChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202100892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dawid Kałuża
- Faculty of Chemistry University of Warsaw Pasteura 1 02-093 Warsaw Poland
| | - Agata Michalska
- Faculty of Chemistry University of Warsaw Pasteura 1 02-093 Warsaw Poland
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4
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Lisak G. Reliable environmental trace heavy metal analysis with potentiometric ion sensors - reality or a distant dream. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 289:117882. [PMID: 34364114 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Over two decades have passed since polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes were found to exhibit sufficiently lower detection limits. This in turn brought a great promise to measure trace level concentrations of heavy metals using potentiometric ion sensors at environmental conditions. Despite great efforts, trace analysis of heavy metals using ion-selective electrodes at environmental conditions is still not commercially available. This work will predominantly concentrate on summarizing and evaluating prospects of using potentiometric ion sensors in view of environmental determination of heavy metals in on-site and on-line analysis modes. Challenges associated with development of reliable potentiometric sensors to be operational in environmental conditions will be discussed and reasoning behind unsuccessful efforts to develop potentiometric on-site and on-line environmental ion sensors will be explored. In short, it is now clear that solely lowering the detection limit of the ion-selective electrodes does not guarantee development of successful sensors that would meet the requirement of environmental matrices over long term usage. More pressing challenges of the properties and the performance of the potentiometric sensors must be addressed first before considering extending their sensitivity to low analyte concentrations. These are, in order of importance, selectivity of the ion-selective membrane to main ion followed by the membrane resistance to parallel processes, such as water ingress to the ISM, light sensitivity, change in temperature, presence of gasses in solution and pH and finally resistance of the ion-selective membrane to fouling. In the future, targeted on-site and on-line environmental sensors should be developed, addressing specific environmental conditions. Thus, ion-selective electrodes should be developed with the intention to be suitable to the operational environmental conditions, rather than looking at universal sensor design validated in the idealized and simple sample matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz Lisak
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore, 637141, Singapore.
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5
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Cheong YH, Lisak G. Physically Tailoring Ion Fluxes by Introducing Foamlike Structures into Polymeric Membranes of Solid Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes. ACS Sens 2021; 6:3667-3676. [PMID: 34585917 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.1c01413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Transmembrane ion fluxes have earlier been identified as a source of potential instability in solid contact ion-selective electrodes (SC-ISEs). In this work, foamlike structures were intentionally introduced into a potassium-sensitive plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) ion-selective membrane (ISM) near the membrane|solid contact interface by controlling the temperature during membrane deposition. Foamlike structures in the ISM were shown to be effective at physically tailoring the transport of ions in the ion-selective membrane, greatly reducing the flux of interfering ions from the sample to the membrane|solid contact interface. The drifts during a conventional water layer test were hence able to be greatly mitigated, even with SC-ISEs incorporating a relatively hydrophilic poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) solid contact. In solutions with a high background concentration of interfering ions, equilibrated ion-selective electrodes with foamlike membranes were able to reproduce their initial potentials within 0.6 mV uncertainty (n = 3) from 0 to 18 h. This was achieved despite sensor exposure to solutions exceeding the selectivity limit of the ISEs in 3 h intervals, allowing improvement of the potential reproducibility of the sensors. Since the introduction of foamlike structures into ISM is linked to temperature-controlled membrane deposition, it is envisaged that the method is generally applicable to all solid contact ion-selective electrodes that are based on polymeric membranes and require membrane deposition from the cocktail solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Heng Cheong
- College of Engineering, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
- Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Residues and Resource Reclamation Center, 1 Cleantech Loop, Cleantech, Singapore 637141, Singapore
- Robert Bosch (South East Asia) Pte Ltd., 11 Bishan Street 21, Singapore 573943, Singapore
| | - Grzegorz Lisak
- College of Engineering, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
- Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Residues and Resource Reclamation Center, 1 Cleantech Loop, Cleantech, Singapore 637141, Singapore
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6
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Cheong YH, Ge L, Lisak G. Highly reproducible solid contact ion selective electrodes: Emerging opportunities for potentiometry - A review. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1162:338304. [PMID: 33926699 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The solid contact ion-selective electrodes (SC-ISEs) have been extensively studied in the field of ion sensing as they offer the possibility of miniaturization, are relatively inexpensive in comparison to other analytical techniques and allow straightforward and routine analyses of ions in a number of clinical, environmental and industrial process samples. In recent years, significant interest has grown in the development of SC-ISEs with well-defined interfacialpotentials at the membrane, solid contact, and substrate electrode interfaces. This has resulted in interesting SC-ISEs exhibiting high electrode-to-electrode potential reproducibility, for those made in a single batch of electrodes, some approaching or exceeding those observed in liquid-contact ISEs. The advancement in the potential reproducibility of SC-ISEs has been partially achieved by scrutinizing insufficiently reproducible fabrication methods of SC-ISEs, or by introducing novel control measures or modifiers to components of the ISEs. This paper provides an overview of the methods as well as the challenges in establishing and maintaining reproducible potentials during the fabrication and use of novel SC-ISEs. The rules outlined in the works reviewed may form the basis of further development of cost-effective, user-friendly, limited calibration or calibration-free potentiometric SC-ISEs to achieve reliable ion analyses here and now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Heng Cheong
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore; Robert Bosch (South East Asia) Pte Ltd, 11 Bishan Street 21, Singapore, 573943, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Liya Ge
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore
| | - Grzegorz Lisak
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore, 637141, Singapore.
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7
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Unintended Changes of Ion-Selective Membranes Composition-Origin and Effect on Analytical Performance. MEMBRANES 2020; 10:membranes10100266. [PMID: 32998393 PMCID: PMC7601616 DOI: 10.3390/membranes10100266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Ion-selective membranes, as used in potentiometric sensors, are mixtures of a few important constituents in a carefully balanced proportion. The changes of composition of the ion-selective membrane, both qualitative and quantitative, affect the analytical performance of sensors. Different constructions and materials applied to improve sensors result in specific conditions of membrane formation, in consequence, potentially can result in uncontrolled modification of the membrane composition. Clearly, these effects need to be considered, especially if preparation of miniaturized, potentially disposable internal-solution free sensors is considered. Furthermore, membrane composition changes can occur during the normal operation of sensors—accumulation of species as well as release need to be taken into account, regardless of the construction of sensors used. Issues related to spontaneous changes of membrane composition that can occur during sensor construction, pre-treatment and their operation, seem to be underestimated in the subject literature. The aim of this work is to summarize available data related to potentiometric sensors and highlight the effects that can potentially be important also for other sensors using ion-selective membranes, e.g., optodes or voltammetric sensors.
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Urbanowicz M, Pijanowska DG, Jasiński A, Ekman M, Bocheńska MK. A miniaturized solid-contact potentiometric multisensor platform for determination of ionic profiles in human saliva. J Solid State Electrochem 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-019-04429-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
This paper describes a miniaturized multisensor platform (MP-ISES) consisting of electrodes: a reference one (RE) and ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) for monitoring Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, and SCN− ions and pH in human saliva. Gold electrode surface was modified by deposition of two layers: electrosynthesized PEDOT:PSS forming an intermediate layer, and ion-selective membrane. The developed ISEs were characterized by a wide linear range and sensitivity consistent with the Nernst model. The entire MP-ISEs are characterized by satisfactory metrological parameters demonstrating their applicability in biomedical research, in particular in measurements concerning determination of ionic profiles of saliva. Saliva samples of 18 volunteers aged from 20 to 26 participating in a month experiment had been daily collected and investigated using the MP-ISEs assigned individually to each person. Personalized profiles of ions (ionograms) in saliva, such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, SCN−, and H+, were obtained.
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9
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Han T, Vanamo U, Bobacka J. Influence of Electrode Geometry on the Response of Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes when Utilizing a New Coulometric Signal Readout Method. ChemElectroChem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201600575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Han
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry; Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre; Åbo Akademi University; Biskopsgatan 8 FI-20500 Åbo Finland
| | - Ulriika Vanamo
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry; Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre; Åbo Akademi University; Biskopsgatan 8 FI-20500 Åbo Finland
| | - Johan Bobacka
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry; Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre; Åbo Akademi University; Biskopsgatan 8 FI-20500 Åbo Finland
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10
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Impact of the Electrolyte Co-Extraction to the Response of the Ionophore-based Ion-Selective Electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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11
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Vanamo U, Hupa E, Yrjänä V, Bobacka J. New Signal Readout Principle for Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes. Anal Chem 2016; 88:4369-74. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ulriika Vanamo
- Laboratory
of Analytical Chemistry, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
- Laboratory
of Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Elisa Hupa
- Laboratory
of Analytical Chemistry, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
- Graduate
School in Chemical Engineering (GSCE), Åbo Akademi University, Tavastgatan
13, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
| | - Ville Yrjänä
- Laboratory
of Analytical Chemistry, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
| | - Johan Bobacka
- Laboratory
of Analytical Chemistry, Johan Gadolin Process Chemistry Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Åbo, Finland
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12
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A New N-Heterocyclic Carbene Ionophore in Plasticizer-free Polypyrrole Membrane for Determining Ag+ in Tap Water. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.02.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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13
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Ummadi JG, Downs C, Joshi VS, Ferracane J, Koley D. Carbon-Based Solid-State Calcium Ion-Selective Microelectrode and Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy: A Quantitative Study of pH-Dependent Release of Calcium Ions from Bioactive Glass. Anal Chem 2016; 88:3218-26. [PMID: 26861499 PMCID: PMC4873256 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Solid-state ion-selective electrodes are used as scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM) probes because of their inherent fast response time and ease of miniaturization. In this study, we report the development of a solid-state, low-poly(vinyl chloride), carbon-based calcium ion-selective microelectrode (Ca(2+)-ISME), 25 μm in diameter, capable of performing an amperometric approach curve and serving as a potentiometric sensor. The Ca(2+)-ISME has a broad linear response range of 5 μM to 200 mM with a near Nernstian slope of 28 mV/log[a(Ca(2+))]. The calculated detection limit for Ca(2+)-ISME is 1 μM. The selectivity coefficients of this Ca(2+)-ISME are log K(Ca(2+),A) = -5.88, -5.54, and -6.31 for Mg(2+), Na(+), and K(+), respectively. We used this new type of Ca(2+)-ISME as an SECM probe to quantitatively map the chemical microenvironment produced by a model substrate, bioactive glass (BAG). In acidic conditions (pH 4.5), BAG was found to increase the calcium ion concentration from 0.7 mM ([Ca(2+)] in artificial saliva) to 1.4 mM at 20 μm above the surface. In addition, a solid-state dual SECM pH probe was used to correlate the release of calcium ions with the change in local pH. Three-dimensional pH and calcium ion distribution mapping were also obtained by using these solid-state probes. The quantitative mapping of pH and Ca(2+) above the BAG elucidates the effectiveness of BAG in neutralizing and releasing calcium ions in acidic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyothir Ganesh Ummadi
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Corey Downs
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Vrushali S. Joshi
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Jack Ferracane
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239, United States
| | - Dipankar Koley
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
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14
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Mikhelson KN, Peshkova MA. Advances and trends in ionophore-based chemical sensors. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2015. [DOI: 10.1070/rcr4506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Peshkova MA, Koltashova ES, Khripoun GA, Mikhelson KN. Improvement of the upper limit of the ISE Nernstian response by tuned galvanostatic polarization. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.03.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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16
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Said NR, Rezayi M, Narimani L, Abdul Manan NS, Alias Y. A novel potentiometric self-plasticizing polypyrrole sensor based on a bidentate bis-NHC ligand for determination of Hg(ii) cation. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra10950g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this approach, a new potentiometric self-plasticizing polypyrrole sensor was constructed based on a bidentate bis-NHC ligand for the purpose of Hg2+cation determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Rahimah Said
- University of Malaya Centre for Ionic Liquid
- Chemistry Department
- Faculty of Science
- University of Malaya
- 50603 Kuala Lumpur
| | - Majid Rezayi
- University of Malaya Centre for Ionic Liquid
- Chemistry Department
- Faculty of Science
- University of Malaya
- 50603 Kuala Lumpur
| | - Leila Narimani
- University of Malaya Centre for Ionic Liquid
- Chemistry Department
- Faculty of Science
- University of Malaya
- 50603 Kuala Lumpur
| | - Ninie Suhana Abdul Manan
- University of Malaya Centre for Ionic Liquid
- Chemistry Department
- Faculty of Science
- University of Malaya
- 50603 Kuala Lumpur
| | - Yatimah Alias
- University of Malaya Centre for Ionic Liquid
- Chemistry Department
- Faculty of Science
- University of Malaya
- 50603 Kuala Lumpur
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Electrochemical control of the standard potential of solid-contact ion-selective electrodes having a conducting polymer as ion-to-electron transducer. Electrochim Acta 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.10.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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18
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Jaworska E, Lewandowski W, Mieczkowski J, Maksymiuk K, Michalska A. Simple and disposable potentiometric sensors based on graphene or multi-walled carbon nanotubes--carbon-plastic potentiometric sensors. Analyst 2014; 138:2363-71. [PMID: 23457707 DOI: 10.1039/c3an36741j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A simple procedure leading to disposable potentiometric sensors using as a supporting electrode - electrical lead and transducer - a layer of carbon nanostructured material, either graphene or multi-walled nanotubes, is proposed, and the effect of the material used on the properties of the sensor is discussed. The obtained layers were partially covered with a conventional poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) based ion-selective membrane to result in simple, planar, and disposable potentiometric sensors. The analytical performance of the thus obtained electrodes was compared with that of classical macroscopic all-solid-state ion-selective electrodes (e.g. employing poly(octylthiophene) as a solid contact and a similar ion-selective membrane). It was superior (taking into account detection limits or selectivity towards Na(+) ions) compared to that of other disposable sensors proposed recently. The observed excellent analytical performance was attributed to the applied method of preparation of carbon nanostructured materials, which does not require addition of a surfactant to obtain a stable suspension (ink) used to prepare the electrical lead and the transducer of the sensor. Although the proposed sensors are predominantly intended for disposable use, pronounced stability of potential readings was obtained in within-day experiments. Moreover, due to their high conductivity carbon-plastic electrodes can be also applied in polarized potentiometric measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Jaworska
- Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
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19
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Ivanova NM, Levin MB, Mikhelson KN. Problems and prospects of solid contact ion-selective electrodes with ionophore-based membranes. Russ Chem Bull 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-012-0136-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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20
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Xu S, Yuan Q, Yu S, Wu X. Single-Piece Solid-Contact Pb2+-Selective Electrodes Based on Thiophene Oligomer. ELECTROANAL 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201200195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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21
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HUANG MR, GU GL, DING YB, FU XT, LI RG. Advanced Solid-Contact Ion Selective Electrode Based on Electrically Conducting Polymers. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(11)60572-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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22
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Skórska L, Michalska A, Wojciechowski M, Bulska E, Maksymiuk K. Estimation of primary silver ions contents in poly(vinyl chloride) ion-selective membranes using chronopotentiometry and mass spectrometry. Electrochim Acta 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.12.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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23
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24
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Lisak G, Sokalski T, Bobacka J, Harju L, Mikhelson K, Lewenstam A. Tuned galvanostatic polarization of solid-state lead-selective electrodes for lowering of the detection limit. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 707:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 09/10/2011] [Accepted: 09/13/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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25
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Pawłowski P, Kisiel A, Michalska A, Maksymiuk K. Potentiometric responses of ion-selective electrodes after galvanostatically controlled incorporation of primary ions. Talanta 2011; 84:814-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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26
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Kisiel A, Mazur M, Kuśnieruk S, Kijewska K, Krysiński P, Michalska A. Polypyrrole microcapsules as a transducer for ion-selective electrodes. Electrochem commun 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2010.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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27
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Mikhelson KN. Ion-selective electrodes with sensitivity in strongly diluted solutions. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2010. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934810020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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28
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Fierke MA, Lai CZ, Bühlmann P, Stein A. Effects of architecture and surface chemistry of three-dimensionally ordered macroporous carbon solid contacts on performance of ion-selective electrodes. Anal Chem 2010; 82:680-8. [PMID: 20000696 PMCID: PMC2832318 DOI: 10.1021/ac902222n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The effects of the architecture and surface chemistry of three-dimensionally ordered macroporous (3DOM) carbon solid contacts on the properties of ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) were examined. Infiltration of the plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) membrane into the pores of the carbon created a large interfacial area between the sensing membrane and the solid contact, as shown by cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) and elemental analysis. This large interfacial area, along with the high capacitance of the 3DOM carbon solid contacts (as determined by cyclic voltammetry, chronopotentiometry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) results in an excellent long-term stability of the potentiometric response, with drifts as low as 11.7 muV/h. The comparison of 3DOM carbon solid contacts with an untemplated carbon solid contact shows that the pore structure is an essential feature for the excellent electrode performance. However, the surface chemistry of the 3DOM carbon cannot be ignored. While there is no evidence for an aqueous layer forming between the sensing membrane and unoxidized 3DOM carbon, electrodes based on oxidized 3DOM carbon exhibit potentiometric responses with the typical hysteresis indicative of a water layer. A comparison of the different techniques to characterize the solid contacts confirms that constant-current charge-discharge experiments offer an intriguing approach to assess the long-term stability of solid-contact ISEs but shows that their results need to be interpreted with care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A. Fierke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Chun-Ze Lai
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Philippe Bühlmann
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Andreas Stein
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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Mikhel’son KN. Electrochemical sensors based on ionophores: Current state, trends, and prospects. RUSS J GEN CHEM+ 2009. [DOI: 10.1134/s1070363208120268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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30
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Peshkova MA, Sokalski T, Mikhelson KN, Lewenstam A. Obtaining Nernstian Response of a Ca2+-Selective Electrode in a Broad Concentration Range by Tuned Galvanostatic Polarization. Anal Chem 2008; 80:9181-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac8013143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. Peshkova
- Chemical Faculty, c/o St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskij Pr. 26, 198504 St. Petersburg, Russia, and Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Centre for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology “ProSens” and Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FIN-20500 Åbo/Turku, Finland
| | - Tomasz Sokalski
- Chemical Faculty, c/o St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskij Pr. 26, 198504 St. Petersburg, Russia, and Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Centre for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology “ProSens” and Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FIN-20500 Åbo/Turku, Finland
| | - Konstantin N. Mikhelson
- Chemical Faculty, c/o St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskij Pr. 26, 198504 St. Petersburg, Russia, and Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Centre for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology “ProSens” and Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FIN-20500 Åbo/Turku, Finland
| | - Andrzej Lewenstam
- Chemical Faculty, c/o St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskij Pr. 26, 198504 St. Petersburg, Russia, and Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Centre for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology “ProSens” and Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Åbo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, FIN-20500 Åbo/Turku, Finland
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31
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Xu Y, Ngeontae W, Pretsch E, Bakker E. Backside calibration chronopotentiometry: using current to perform ion measurements by zeroing the transmembrane ion flux. Anal Chem 2008; 80:7516-23. [PMID: 18778039 PMCID: PMC2597783 DOI: 10.1021/ac800774e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A recent new direction in ion-selective electrode (ISE) research utilizes a stir effect to indicate the disappearance of an ion concentration gradient across a thin ion-selective membrane. This zeroing experiment allows one to evaluate the equilibrium relationship between front and backside solutions contacting the membrane by varying the backside solution composition. This method is attractive since the absolute potential during the measurement is not required, thus avoiding standard recalibrations from the sample solution and a careful control of the reference electrode potential. We report here on a new concept to alleviate the need to continuously vary the composition of the backside solution. Instead, transmembrane ion fluxes are counterbalanced at an imposed critical current. A theoretical model illustrates the relationship between the magnitude of this critical current and the concentration of analyte and countertransporting ions and is found to correspond well with experimental results. The approach is demonstrated with lead(II)-selective membranes and protons as dominating interference ions, and the concentration of Pb(2+) was successfully measured in tap water samples. The principle was further evaluated with calcium-selective membranes and magnesium as counterdiffusing species, with good results. Advantages and limitations arising from the kinetic nature of the perturbation technique are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yida Xu
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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32
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Veder JP, De Marco R, Clarke G, Chester R, Nelson A, Prince K, Pretsch E, Bakker E. Elimination of undesirable water layers in solid-contact polymeric ion-selective electrodes. Anal Chem 2008; 80:6731-40. [PMID: 18671410 PMCID: PMC2628482 DOI: 10.1021/ac800823f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to develop a novel approach for the production of analytically robust and miniaturized polymeric ion sensors that are vitally important in modern analytical chemistry (e.g., clinical chemistry using single blood droplets, modern biosensors measuring clouds of ions released from nanoparticle-tagged biomolecules, laboratory-on-a-chip applications, etc.). This research has shown that the use of a water-repellent poly(methyl methacrylate)/poly(decyl methacrylate) (PMMA/PDMA) copolymer as the ion-sensing membrane, along with a hydrophobic poly(3-octylthiophene 2,5-diyl) (POT) solid contact as the ion-to-electron transducer, is an excellent strategy for avoiding the detrimental water layer formed at the buried interface of solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (ISEs). Accordingly, it has been necessary to implement a rigorous surface analysis scheme employing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), in situ neutron reflectometry/EIS (NR/EIS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) to probe structurally the solid-contact/membrane interface, so as to identify the conditions that eliminate the undesirable water layer in all solid-state polymeric ion sensors. In this work, we provide the first experimental evidence that the PMMA/PDMA copolymer system is susceptible to water "pooling" at the interface in areas surrounding physical imperfections in the solid contact, with the exposure time for such an event in a PMMA/PDMA copolymer ISE taking nearly 20 times longer than that for a plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) ISE, and the simultaneous use of a hydrophobic POT solid contact with a PMMA/PDMA membrane can eliminate totally this water layer problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Pierre Veder
- Nanochemistry Research Institute, Department of Applied Chemistry, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia, 6845, Australia
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33
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Element profiles in galvanostatically polarized K+-selective all-solid-state sensors with poly(vinyl chloride)-based membranes. J Solid State Electrochem 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-008-0578-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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34
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Light sensitivity and potential stability of electrically conducting polymers commonly used in solid contact ion-selective electrodes. J Solid State Electrochem 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-008-0561-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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35
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Faridbod F, Norouzi P, Dinarvand R, Ganjali MR. Developments in the Field of Conducting and Non-conducting Polymer Based Potentiometric Membrane Sensors for Ions Over the Past Decade. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2008; 8:2331-2412. [PMID: 27879825 PMCID: PMC3673421 DOI: 10.3390/s8042331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2008] [Accepted: 04/02/2008] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Many research studies have been conducted on the use of conjugated polymers in the construction of chemical sensors including potentiometric, conductometric and amperometric sensors or biosensors over the last decade. The induction of conductivity on conjugated polymers by treating them with suitable oxidizing agents won Heeger, MacDiarmid and Shirakawa the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Common conjugated polymers are poly(acetylene)s, poly(pyrrole)s, poly(thiophene)s, poly(terthiophene)s, poly(aniline)s, poly(fluorine)s, poly(3-alkylthiophene)s, polytetrathiafulvalenes, polynapthalenes, poly(p-phenylene sulfide), poly(p-phenylenevinylene)s, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), polyparaphenylene, polyazulene, polyparaphenylene sulfide, polycarbazole and polydiaminonaphthalene. More than 60 sensors for inorganic cations and anions with different characteristics based on conducting polymers have been reported. There have also been reports on the application of non-conducting polymers (nCPs), i.e. PVC, in the construction of potentiometric membrane sensors for determination of more than 60 inorganic cations and anions. However, the leakage of ionophores from the membranes based on these polymers leads to relatively lower life times. In this article, we try to give an overview of Solid-Contact ISE (SCISE), Single-Piece ISE (SPISE), Conducting Polymer (CP)-Based, and also non-conducting polymer PVC-based ISEs for various ions which their difference is in the way of the polymer used with selective membrane. In SCISEs and SPISEs, the plasticized PVC containing the ionophore and ionic additives govern the selectivity behavior of the electrode and the conducting polymer is responsible of ion-to-electron transducer. However, in CPISEs, the conducting polymer layer is doped with a suitable ionophore which enhances the ion selectivity of the CP while its redox response has to be suppressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farnoush Faridbod
- Center of Excellence in Electrochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parviz Norouzi
- Center of Excellence in Electrochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Rassoul Dinarvand
- Medical Nanotechnology Research Centre, Medical Sciences/University of Tehran, Tehran, P.O. Box 14155-6451, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Ganjali
- Center of Excellence in Electrochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Bobacka
- Åbo Akademi University, Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Turku-Åbo, Finland; Faculty of Material Science and Ceramics, AGH-University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, PL-30059 Cracow, Poland; and Åbo Akademi University, Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Center for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology (ProSens), Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Turku-Åbo, Finland
| | - Ari Ivaska
- Åbo Akademi University, Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Turku-Åbo, Finland; Faculty of Material Science and Ceramics, AGH-University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, PL-30059 Cracow, Poland; and Åbo Akademi University, Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Center for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology (ProSens), Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Turku-Åbo, Finland
| | - Andrzej Lewenstam
- Åbo Akademi University, Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Turku-Åbo, Finland; Faculty of Material Science and Ceramics, AGH-University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, PL-30059 Cracow, Poland; and Åbo Akademi University, Process Chemistry Centre, c/o Center for Process Analytical Chemistry and Sensor Technology (ProSens), Biskopsgatan 8, FI-20500 Turku-Åbo, Finland
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37
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Influence of galvanostatic polarisation on evolution of ion concentration profiles in ion-selective membranes, studied by means of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Electrochem commun 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2007.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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38
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Lyczewska M, Wojciechowski M, Bulska E, Hall E, Maksymiuk K, Michalska A. Chloride-Selective Electrodes with Poly(n-butyl acrylate) Based Membranes. ELECTROANAL 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200603721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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39
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Pawłowski P, Michalska A, Maksymiuk K. Galvanostatic Polarization of All-Solid-State K+-Selective Electrodes with Polypyrrole Ion-to-Electron Transducer. ELECTROANAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200603553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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40
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Khripoun G, Volkova E, Liseenkov A, Mikhelson K. Nitrate-Selective Solid Contact Electrodes with Poly(3-octylthiophene) and Poly(aniline) as Ion-to-Electron Transducers Buffered with Electron-Ion-Exchanging Resin. ELECTROANAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200603532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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41
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Szigeti Z, Vigassy T, Bakker E, Pretsch E. Approaches to Improving the Lower Detection Limit of Polymeric Membrane Ion-Selective Electrodes. ELECTROANAL 2006; 18:1254-1265. [PMID: 20336172 PMCID: PMC2844646 DOI: 10.1002/elan.200603539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2006] [Accepted: 04/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
More than ten different approaches for improving the lower detection limit of polymeric membrane ion-selective electrodes have been suggested during the recent years. In this contribution, their principles are briefly summarized with a focus to their general practical applicability. The methods that are the most rugged and the easiest to implement in a routine laboratory will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Szigeti
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH-Hönggerberg, HCI E313, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Tamás Vigassy
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH-Hönggerberg, HCI E313, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Eric Bakker
- Department of Chemistry, 560 Oval Drive, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Ernö Pretsch
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH-Hönggerberg, HCI E313, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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42
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Michalska A, Skompska M, Mieczkowski J, Zagórska M, Maksymiuk K. Tailoring Solution Cast Poly(3,4-dioctyloxythiophene) Transducers for Potentiometric All-Solid-State Ion-Selective Electrodes. ELECTROANAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200503466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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43
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Michalska A, Ocypa M, Maksymiuk K. Effect of interferents present in the internal solution or in the conducting polymer transducer on the responses of ion-selective electrodes. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 385:203-7. [PMID: 16557407 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0380-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2005] [Revised: 02/16/2006] [Accepted: 02/17/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The effect of interferents present on the opposite side of the Pb2+-selective membrane has been studied for both internal solution and all-solid-state sensors with a conducting polymer (CP) transducer. For interferents with moderate selectivity coefficients (sodium cations) present in the internal solution or in the CP transducer phase, super-Nernstian responses were obtained. For sensors containing strongly discriminated interferents (lithium ions), however, responses typical of conventional electrodes are observed, despite the low activity of primary ions on the opposite side of the membrane. This effect is attributed to hindered incorporation of interfering ions into the membrane, which also impairs the long term stability of the potential. Because of the relatively small absolute amounts of interferents in the transducer of all-solid-state sensors, their exchange for primary ions occurs quickly. Thus, transformation of the sensor to one with a micromolar detection limit and high potential stability is observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Michalska
- Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
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44
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Sutter J, Pretsch E. Response Behavior of Poly(vinyl chloride)- and Polyurethane-Based Ca2+-Selective Membrane Electrodes with Polypyrrole- and Poly(3-octylthiophene)-Mediated Internal Solid Contact. ELECTROANAL 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.200503373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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45
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Michalska A. Optimizing the analytical performance and construction of ion-selective electrodes with conducting polymer-based ion-to-electron transducers. Anal Bioanal Chem 2005; 384:391-406. [PMID: 16365779 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-005-0132-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2005] [Revised: 09/07/2005] [Accepted: 09/21/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
All-solid-state ion-selective electrodes that use a conducting polymer as the ion-to-electron transducer have emerged as one of the most promising classes of all-solid-state potentiometric sensors in recent years. This is largely because it has many analytical advantages, including high response stability, which is unique in the field of internal-solution-free ion-selective electrodes. This paper reviews the considerable progress that has been made in this area of sensing in recent years, in terms of detection limits, selectivity coefficients and novel construction methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Michalska
- Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University, Pasteura 1, 02-093, Warsaw, Poland.
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