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Smołka S, Krukiewicz K. Catalyst Design through Grafting of Diazonium Salts-A Critical Review on Catalyst Stability. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12575. [PMID: 37628758 PMCID: PMC10454683 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241612575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In the pursuit of designing a reusable catalyst with enhanced catalytic activity, recent studies indicate that electrochemical grafting of diazonium salts is an efficient method of forming heterogeneous catalysts. The aim of this review is to assess the industrial applicability of diazonium-based catalysts with particular emphasis on their mechanical, chemical, and thermal stability. To this end, different approaches to catalyst production via diazonium salt chemistry have been compared, including the immobilization of catalysts by a chemical reaction with a diazonium moiety, the direct use of diazonium salts and nanoparticles as catalysts, the use of diazonium layers to modulate wettability of a carrier, as well as the possibility of transforming the catalyst into the corresponding diazonium salt. After providing descriptions of the most suitable carriers, the most common deactivation routes of catalysts have been discussed. Although diazonium-based catalysts are expected to exhibit good stability owing to the covalent bond created between a catalyst and a post-diazonium layer, this review indicates the paucity of studies that experimentally verify this hypothesis. Therefore, use of diazonium salts appears a promising approach in catalysts formation if more research efforts can focus on assessing their stability and long-term catalytic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Smołka
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Silesian University of Technology, M. Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
| | - Katarzyna Krukiewicz
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, Silesian University of Technology, M. Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
- Centre for Organic and Nanohybrid Electronics, Silesian University of Technology, S. Konarskiego 22b, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
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Sharma D, Lee J, Seo J, Shin H. Development of a Sensitive Electrochemical Enzymatic Reaction-Based Cholesterol Biosensor Using Nano-Sized Carbon Interdigitated Electrodes Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles. SENSORS 2017; 17:s17092128. [PMID: 28914766 PMCID: PMC5621016 DOI: 10.3390/s17092128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We developed a versatile and highly sensitive biosensor platform. The platform is based on electrochemical-enzymatic redox cycling induced by selective enzyme immobilization on nano-sized carbon interdigitated electrodes (IDEs) decorated with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Without resorting to sophisticated nanofabrication technologies, we used batch wafer-level carbon microelectromechanical systems (C-MEMS) processes to fabricate 3D carbon IDEs reproducibly, simply, and cost effectively. In addition, AuNPs were selectively electrodeposited on specific carbon nanoelectrodes; the high surface-to-volume ratio and fast electron transfer ability of AuNPs enhanced the electrochemical signal across these carbon IDEs. Gold nanoparticle characteristics such as size and morphology were reproducibly controlled by modulating the step-potential and time period in the electrodeposition processes. To detect cholesterol selectively using AuNP/carbon IDEs, cholesterol oxidase (ChOx) was selectively immobilized via the electrochemical reduction of the diazonium cation. The sensitivity of the AuNP/carbon IDE-based biosensor was ensured by efficient amplification of the redox mediators, ferricyanide and ferrocyanide, between selectively immobilized enzyme sites and both of the combs of AuNP/carbon IDEs. The presented AuNP/carbon IDE-based cholesterol biosensor exhibited a wide sensing range (0.005–10 mM) and high sensitivity (~993.91 µA mM−1 cm−2; limit of detection (LOD) ~1.28 µM). In addition, the proposed cholesterol biosensor was found to be highly selective for the cholesterol detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepti Sharma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Korea.
| | - Jongmin Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Korea.
| | - Junyoung Seo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Korea.
| | - Heungjoo Shin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering , Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Ulsan 44919, Korea.
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Randriamahazaka H, Ghilane J. Electrografting and Controlled Surface Functionalization of Carbon Based Surfaces for Electroanalysis. ELECTROANAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201500527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Kumsapaya C, Bakaï MF, Loget G, Goudeau B, Warakulwit C, Limtrakul J, Kuhn A, Zigah D. Wireless Electrografting of Molecular Layers for Janus Particle Synthesis. Chemistry 2012; 19:1577-80. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201204198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Hayat A, Marty JL, Radi AE. Novel Amperometric Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor Based on Horseradish Peroxidase Azide Covalently Immobilized on Ethynyl-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode via Click Chemistry. ELECTROANAL 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201200053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Menegazzo N, Zou Q, Booksh KS. Characterization of electrografted 4-aminophenylalanine layers for low non-specific binding of proteins. NEW J CHEM 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2nj20930f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Ran Q, Peng R, Liang C, Ye S, Xian Y, Zhang W, Jin L. Direct electrochemistry of horseradish peroxidase immobilized on electrografted 4-ethynylphenyl film via click chemistry. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 697:27-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Zhang Y, Sun Y, Liu Z, Xu F, Cui K, Shi Y, Wen Z, Li Z. Au nanocages for highly sensitive and selective detection of H2O2. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2011.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Blocking properties of gold electrodes modified with 4-nitrophenyl and 4-decylphenyl groups. J Solid State Electrochem 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-011-1381-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Ricci AM, Tognalli N, de la Llave E, Vericat C, Méndez De Leo LP, Williams FJ, Scherlis D, Salvarezza R, Calvo EJ. Electrochemistry of Os(2,2′-bpy)2ClPyCH2NHCOPh tethered to Au electrodes by S–Au and C–Au junctions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:5336-45. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cp02409k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Bélanger D, Pinson J. Electrografting: a powerful method for surface modification. Chem Soc Rev 2011; 40:3995-4048. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cs00149j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 751] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Plowman BJ, Bhargava SK, O'Mullane AP. Electrochemical fabrication of metallic nanostructured electrodes for electroanalytical applications. Analyst 2011; 136:5107-19. [DOI: 10.1039/c1an15657h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kullapere M, Kozlova J, Matisen L, Sammelselg V, Menezes HA, Maia G, Schiffrin DJ, Tammeveski K. Electrochemical properties of aryl-modified gold electrodes. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2009.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Li J, Han T, Wei N, Du J, Zhao X. Three-dimensionally ordered macroporous (3DOM) gold-nanoparticle-doped titanium dioxide (GTD) photonic crystals modified electrodes for hydrogen peroxide biosensor. Biosens Bioelectron 2009; 25:773-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2009.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Noël JM, Sjöberg B, Marsac R, Zigah D, Bergamini JF, Wang A, Rigaut S, Hapiot P, Lagrost C. Flexible strategy for immobilizing redox-active compounds using in situ generation of diazonium salts. Investigations of the blocking and catalytic properties of the layers. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2009; 25:12742-9. [PMID: 19761268 DOI: 10.1021/la901765e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A versatile two-step method is developed to covalently immobilize redox-active molecules onto carbon surfaces. First, a robust anchoring platform is grafted onto surfaces by electrochemical reduction of aryl diazonium salts in situ generated. Depending on the nature of the layer termini, -COOH or -NH(2), a further chemical coupling involving ferrocenemethylamine or ferrocene carboxylic acid derivatives leads to the covalent binding of ferrocene centers. The chemical strategy using acyl chloride activation is efficient and flexible, since it can be applied either to surface-reactive end groups or to reactive species in solution. Cyclic voltammetry analyses point to the covalent binding of ferrocene units restricted to the upper layers of the underlying aryl films, while AFM measurements show a lost of compactness of the layers after the chemical attachment of ferrocene centers. The preparation conditions of the anchoring layers were found to determine the interfacial properties of the resulted ferrocenyl-modified electrodes. The ferrocene units promoted effective redox mediation providing that the free redox probes are adequately chosen (i.e., vs size/formal potential) and the underlying layers exhibit strong blocking properties. For anchoring films with weaker blocking effect, the coexistence of two distinct phenomena, redox mediation and ET at pinholes could be evidenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Noël
- Equipe MaCSE, CNRS-Universite de Rennes 1,UMR6226,campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes, France
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