Electrochemical Creatinine (Bio)Sensors for Point-of-Care Diagnosis of Renal Malfunction and Chronic Kidney Disorders

In the post-pandemic era, point-of-care (POC) diagnosis of diseases is an important research frontier. Modern portable electrochemical (bio)sensors enable the design of POC diagnostics for the identification of diseases and regular healthcare monitoring. Herein, we present a critical review of the electrochemical creatinine (bio)sensors. These sensors either make use of biological receptors such as enzymes or employ synthetic responsive materials, which provide a sensitive interface for creatinine-specific interactions. The characteristics of different receptors and electrochemical devices are discussed, along with their limitations. The major challenges in the development of affordable and deliverable creatinine diagnostics and the drawbacks of enzymatic and enzymeless electrochemical biosensors are elaborated, especially considering their analytical performance parameters. These revolutionary devices have potential biomedical applications ranging from early POC diagnosis of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and other kidney-related illnesses to routine monitoring of creatinine in elderly and at-risk humans.

Smartphone paired SIM card-type integrated creatinine biosensor

Medical diagnostic sector is relying on affordable, handheld devices integrating smart biosensing and transducing interfaces that enable clinical analysis with minimal end-user intervention and resource requirements. In response, we propose here, a SIM card-type pH responsive polymer-modified paper-based biosensing device, coupled to a smartphone, for the determination of urinary creatinine. A vertical microfluidic channel was fabricated on a paper strip by wax printing. The hydrophilic area was coated by a poly(methylmethacrylate)/poly(methacrylic acid) random copolymer, PMMA-co-PMAA, and on top of it, creatinine deiminase (CD) was immobilized. Data demonstrated, on the one hand, zero vertical flow of urine through the enzyme-free PMMA-co-PMAA-modified paper strip, i.e., a high selectivity against the components of the matrix, and on the other hand, in the presence of CD, a creatinine -concentration dependent commence of sample's downward flow due to the selective, creatinine-triggered degradation of the copolymer by the enzymatically produced ammonia. This CD/PMMA-co-PMAA paper-based biosensing smart assembly is coupled with three conductive strips, which enable the automatic on/off (sample addition/measurement end) measurement of the copolymer degradation time, through electric resistance measurements. It also features an in-built sample well and wireless communication support through the integration of a Bluetooth® microprocessor incorporated with time and resistance measuring circuits. Using newly synthesized pH responsive PMMA-co-PMAA at different molecular weights and volume fraction ratios offering tunable dissolution properties, the detection range was adjusted over 3-30 mM creatinine to overspread the normal range of creatinine in urine. The device was successfully applied to the determination of urinary creatinine.