Maturation of phagosomes is accompanied by specific patterns of small GTPases

Myo1 localizes to phagosomes, some of which traffic to the nucleus in a Myo1-dependent manner in Tetrahymena thermophila

Myo1 is one of 13 myosins in Tetrahymena thermophila. Initially, twelve of the myosins in Tetrahymena were assigned to Class XX in the myosin superfamily but recently re-assigned to a subclass within Class XIV. In a previous study, we reported that genomic knockout of MYO1 affected phagocytosis and macronuclear amitosis. These two phenotypes have appeared disparate because a possible mechanism linking phagocytosis and amitosis was unknown. In the present study, Myo1 localization was investigated in order to further link machinery for phagocytosis and amitosis. Antibodies directed against the Myo1 motor domain detected an immunospecific polypeptide at 175-180 kDa on immunoblots of wild-type proteins. The 175-180 kDa polypeptide was not detected on immunoblots of proteins from the knockout strain. For immunofluorescence microscopy, cells were allowed to internalize fluorescent beads as markers for phagosomes. In wild-type cells, anti-Myo1 and anti-actin antibodies co-localized to the periphery of phagosomes and the macronucleus. In the MYO1-knockout strain only background fluorescence was observed with anti-Myo1 antibody. Confocal x-z series through macronuclei revealed fluorescent beads within the nucleoplasm. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference between the mean distributions of fluorescent beads in the nucleoplasm of wild-type and MYO1-knockout cells. A fluorescent dye was used to label plasma membrane in living cells. Dye-labeled vacuoles trafficked to the macronucleus. Trafficking of phagosomes to the macronucleus in a myosin-dependent manner is a novel finding and a possible mechanism for targeting myosin and actin to the nucleus.

The Tetrahymena thermophila phagosome proteome

In vertebrates, phagocytosis occurs mainly in specialized cells of the immune system and serves as a primary defense against invading pathogens, but it also plays a role in clearing apoptotic cells and in tissue remodeling during development. In contrast, unicellular eukaryotes, such as the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila, employ phagocytosis to ingest and degrade other microorganisms to meet their nutritional needs. To learn more about the protein components of the multistep process of phagocytosis, we carried out an analysis of the Tetrahymena phagosome proteome. Tetrahymena cells were fed polystyrene beads, which allowed for the efficient purification of phagosomes. The protein composition of purified phagosomes was then analyzed by multidimensional separation coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 453 peptides were identified that resulted in the identification of 73 putative phagosome proteins. Twenty-eight of the proteins have been implicated in phagocytosis in other organisms, indicating that key aspects of phagocytosis were conserved during evolution. Other identified proteins have not previously been associated with phagocytosis, including some of unknown function. Live-cell confocal fluorescence imaging of Tetrahymena strains expressing green fluorescent protein-tagged versions of four of the identified phagosome proteins provided evidence that at least three of the proteins (including two with unknown functions) are associated with phagosomes, indicating that the bulk of the proteins identified in the analyses are indeed phagosome associated.

Characterization of Endocytic Vesicles Using Magnetic Microbeads Coated with Signalling Ligands

Iron microbeads coated with the protein ligands insulin and EGF (Fe-INS and Fe-EGF) were prepared. Examination of the traffic of these ligand-coated microbeads demonstrated their internalization via clathrin-coated vesicles. Using magnetic methods, we have purified vesicles derived from the endocytic pathway. Vesicles prepared by this method are essentially free of contamination with other endomembrane compartments. Examination of the vesicles derived from cells treated with Fe-INS beads demonstrated the presence of the components of the Ras/Erk cascade on their surface. We conclude that the coupling of the Erk-signalling cascade induced by insulin takes place on the surface of endocytic vesicles derived from the internalization of the insulin receptor.

Directed motility of phagosomes inTetrahymena thermophila requires actin and Myo1p, a novel unconventional myosin

The phagosome cycle was investigated in Tetrahymena thermophila, which had internalized fluorescent latex beads. Confocal microscopy of cells from a GFP-actin strain revealed actin filaments that extended 3-5 mum from the periphery of fluorescent phagosomes. In GFP-actin cells and in wild-type cells, motility of fluorescent phagosomes was directed from the oral cavity to the posterior end of the cell. Although 60% of fluorescent phagosomes in the MYO1-knockout strain were motile, movement of phagosomes was not directed toward the posterior end of the cell and was random. Forty percent of fluorescent phagosomes in knockout cells were non-motile in contrast to only 20% non-motile phagosomes in wild-type cells. The increased incidence of non-motile phagosomes in the knockout strain could reflect absence of Myo1p as a motor. Another myosin or other molecular motors could power random movement of phagosomes in the MYO1-knockout strain. In latrunculin-treated GFP-actin cells, movement of fluorescent phagosomes was random. Average velocity of random movement of fluorescent phagosomes in the knockout strain and in latrunculin-treated cells was statistically the same as the average velocity (2.0 +/- 1.9 microm/min) of phagosomes in GFP-actin cells. These findings are an indication that dynamic actin and Myo1p are required for directed motility of phagosomes.

Molecular Aspects of Membrane Trafficking in Paramecium

Results achieved in the molecular biology of Paramecium have shed new light on its elaborate membrane trafficking system. Paramecium disposes not only of the standard routes (endoplasmic reticulum --> Golgi --> lysosomes or secretory vesicles; endo- and phagosomes --> lysosomes/digesting vacuoles), but also of some unique features, e.g. and elaborate phagocytic route with the cytoproct and membrane recycling to the cytopharynx, as well as the osmoregulatory system with multiple membrane fusion sites. Exocytosis sites for trichocysts (dense-core secretory vesicles), parasomal sacs (coated pits), and terminal cisternae (early endosomes) display additional regularly arranged predetermined fusion/fission sites, which now can be discussed on a molecular basis. Considering the regular, repetitive arrangements of membrane components, availability of mutants for complementation studies, sensitivity to gene silencing, and so on, Paramecium continues to be a valuable model system for analyzing membrane interactions. This review intends to set a new baseline for ongoing work along these lines.

Membrane trafficking and processing in Paramecium

Cellular membranes are made in a cell's biosynthetic pathway and are composed of similar biochemical constituents. Nevertheless, they become differentiated as membrane components are sorted into different membrane-limited compartments. We summarize the morphological and immunological similarities and differences seen in the membranes of the various interacting compartments in the single-celled organism, Paramecium. Besides the biosynthetic pathway, membranes of the regulated secretory pathway, endocytic pathway, and phagocytic pathway are highlighted. Paramecium is a multipolarized cell in the sense that several different pools of membrane-limited compartments are targeted for exocytosis at very specific sites at the cell surface. Thus, the method used by this cell to sort and package its membrane subunits into different compartments, the processes used to transport these compartments to specific locations at the plasma membrane and to other intracellular fusion sites, the processes of membrane retrieval, and the processes of membrane docking and fusion are reviewed. Paramecium has provided an excellent model for studying the complexities of membrane trafficking in one cell using both morphological and immunocytochemical techniques. This cell also promises to be a useful model for studying aspects of the molecular biology of membrane sorting, retrieval, transport, and fusion.