1
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Abstract
Isotachophoresis (ITP) is a versatile electrophoretic technique that can be used for sample preconcentration, separation, purification, and mixing, and to control and accelerate chemical reactions. Although the basic technique is nearly a century old and widely used, there is a persistent need for an easily approachable, succinct, and rigorous review of ITP theory and analysis. This is important because the interest and adoption of the technique has grown over the last two decades, especially with its implementation in microfluidics and integration with on-chip chemical and biochemical assays. We here provide a review of ITP theory starting from physicochemical first-principles, including conservation of species, conservation of current, approximation of charge neutrality, pH equilibrium of weak electrolytes, and so-called regulating functions that govern transport dynamics, with a strong emphasis on steady and unsteady transport. We combine these generally applicable (to all types of ITP) theoretical discussions with applications of ITP in the field of microfluidic systems, particularly on-chip biochemical analyses. Our discussion includes principles that govern the ITP focusing of weak and strong electrolytes; ITP dynamics in peak and plateau modes; a review of simulation tools, experimental tools, and detection methods; applications of ITP for on-chip separations and trace analyte manipulation; and design considerations and challenges for microfluidic ITP systems. We conclude with remarks on possible future research directions. The intent of this review is to help make ITP analysis and design principles more accessible to the scientific and engineering communities and to provide a rigorous basis for the increased adoption of ITP in microfluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Ramachandran
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Juan G Santiago
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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2
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Garibyan A, Delyagina E, Agafonov M, Khodov I, Terekhova I. Effect of pH, temperature and native cyclodextrins on aqueous solubility of baricitinib. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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3
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Separability of stereoisomers by electrokinetic chromatography in presence of a neutral selector – fundamental aspects assessed by computer simulation. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1673:463087. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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4
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Thormann W, Mosher RA. Dynamic computer simulations of electrophoresis: 2010-2020. Electrophoresis 2021; 43:10-36. [PMID: 34287996 PMCID: PMC9292373 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The transport of components in liquid media under the influence of an applied electric field can be described with the continuity equation. It represents a nonlinear conservation law that is based upon the balance laws of continuous transport processes and can be solved in time and space numerically. This procedure is referred to as dynamic computer simulation. Since its inception four decades ago, the state of dynamic computer simulation software and its use has progressed significantly. Dynamic models are the most versatile tools to explore the fundamentals of electrokinetic separations and provide insights into the behavior of buffer systems and sample components of all electrophoretic separation methods, including moving boundary electrophoresis, CZE, CGE, ITP, IEF, EKC, ACE, and CEC. This article is a continuation of previous reviews (Electrophoresis 2009, 30, S16–S26 and Electrophoresis 2010, 31, 726–754) and summarizes the progress and achievements made during the 2010 to 2020 time period in which some of the existing dynamic simulators were extended and new simulation packages were developed. This review presents the basics and extensions of the three most used one‐dimensional simulators, provides a survey of new one‐dimensional simulators, outlines an overview of multi‐dimensional models, and mentions models that were briefly reported in the literature. A comprehensive discussion of simulation applications and achievements of the 2010 to 2020 time period is also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Thormann
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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5
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Gaš B, Bravenec P. Simul 6: A fast dynamic simulator of electromigration. Electrophoresis 2021; 42:1291-1299. [PMID: 33811678 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Simul 6 is a 1D dynamic simulator of electromigration based on the mathematical model of electromigration in free solutions. The model consists of continuity equations for the movement of electrolytes in a separation channel, acid-base equilibria of weak electrolytes, and the electroneutrality condition. It accounts for any number of multivalent electrolytes or ampholytes and provides a complete picture about dynamics of electromigration and diffusion in the separation channel. The equations are solved numerically using software means which allow for parallelization and multithreaded computation. Simul 6 has a user-friendly graphical interface. It is typically used for inspection of system peaks (zones) in electrophoresis, stacking and preconcentrating analytes, optimization of separation conditions, method development in either capillary zone electrophoresis, isotachophoresis, and isoelectric focusing. Simul 6 is the successor of Simul 5, and has been launched as a free software available for download at https://simul6.app/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bohuslav Gaš
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
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6
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Sursyakova VV, Levdansky VA, Rubaylo AI. Determination of binding constants for strong complexation by affinity capillary electrophoresis: the example of complexes of ester betulin derivatives with (2-hydroxypropyl)-γ-cyclodextrin. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:5615-5625. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02777-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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7
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Caslavska J, Mosher RA, Thormann W. Computer simulation of the isotachophoretic migration and separation of norpseudoephedrine stereoisomers with a free or immobilized neutral chiral selector. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1623:461176. [PMID: 32505280 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A detailed computer simulation study of the isotachophoretic migration and separation of norpseudoephedrine stereoisomers for cases with the neutral selector added to the leader, immobilized to the capillary wall or support, or partially present in the separation column is presented. The electrophoretic transport of the analytes from the sampling compartment into the separation medium with the selector, the formation of a transient mixed zone, the separation dynamics of the stereoisomers with a free or immobilized selector, the dependence of the leader pH, the ionic mobility of norpseudoephedrine, the complexation constant and selector immobilization on steady-state plateau zone properties, and zone changes occurring during the transition from the chiral environment into a selector free leader are thereby visualized in a hitherto unexplored way. For the case with the selector dissolved in the leading electrolyte, simulation data are compared to those observed in experimental setups with coated fused-silica capillaries that feature minimized electroosmosis and zone detection with conductivity and absorbance detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Caslavska
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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8
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Dvořák M, Kalus M, Dovhunová M, Dubský P, Gaš B. The dynamics of band (peak) shape development in capillary zone electrophoresis in the case of two co‐migrating analytes: The displacement and the tag‐along effects. Electrophoresis 2020; 41:481-492. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201900225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Dvořák
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular ChemistryCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Michal Kalus
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular ChemistryCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Magda Dovhunová
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular ChemistryCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Dubský
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular ChemistryCharles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Bohuslav Gaš
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular ChemistryCharles University Prague Czech Republic
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9
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Takayanagi T, Mine M, Mizuguchi H. Capillary Electrophoresis/Dynamic Frontal Analysis for the Enzyme Assay of 4-Nitrophenyl Phosphate with Alkaline Phosphatase. ANAL SCI 2020; 36:829-834. [PMID: 31956161 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.19p471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A substrate of 4-nitrophenyl phosphate was enzymatically hydrolyzed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in a capillary tube, while an injected zone of the substrate was electrophoretically migrating in the separation buffer containing the enzyme by capillary electrophoresis (CE). During CE migration of the substrate from the start time of the electrophoresis to the detection time of the substrate, the substrate was continuously hydrolyzed by ALP to form a product of 4-nitrophenolate, and a plateau signal of 4-nitrophenolate was detected as a result of the zero-order kinetic reaction. The height of the plateau signal was directly related to the reaction rate, and it was used for the determination of a Michaelis-Menten constant through Lineweaver-Burk plots. Since the plateau signal is attributed to the dynamic formation of the product by the enzymatic reaction in CE, this analysis method is named as capillary electrophoresis/dynamic frontal analysis (CE/DFA). In CE/DFA, the CE separation is included on detecting the plateau signal, and the hydrolysis product before the sample injection is resolved from the dynamically and continuously formed product. The inhibition of the enzyme with the product is also eliminated in CE/DFA by the CE separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshio Takayanagi
- Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences, Tokushima University
| | - Masanori Mine
- Graduate School of Advanced Technology and Science, Tokushima University
| | - Hitoshi Mizuguchi
- Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences, Tokushima University
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10
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Caslavska J, Thormann W. Contemporary chiral simulators for capillary zone electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 2019; 41:502-513. [PMID: 31702052 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201900363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
For separation of enantiomers in presence of a chiral selector, data obtained with the 1D dynamic simulators SIMUL5complex and GENTRANS are compared to data predicted by PeakMaster 6, a recently released generalized model of the linear theory of electromigration. Four electrophoretic systems with stereoisomers of weak bases were investigated. They deal with the estimation of input data for complexation together with the elucidation of the origin of observed system peaks, the interference of analyte and system peak migration, the change of enantiomer migration order as function of the selector concentration and the inversion of analyte migration direction in presence of a multiply negatively charged selector. For all systems, data predicted with PeakMaster 6 are in agreement with those of the dynamic simulators and simulation data compare well with experimental data that were monitored with setups featuring conductivity and/or UV absorbance detection along the capillary. SIMUL5complex and GENTRANS provide the full dynamics of any buffer and sample arrangement and require very long execution time intervals. PeakMaster 6 is restricted to conventional CZE, is based on an approximate solution of the transport equations, provides data for realistic experimental conditions within seconds and represents a practical tool for an experimentalist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Caslavska
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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11
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Sursyakova VV, Levdansky VA, Rubaylo AI. Strong complexation of water‐soluble betulin derivatives with (2‐hydroxypropyl)‐γ‐cyclodextrin studied by affinity capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 2019; 41:112-115. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201900347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria V. Sursyakova
- Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology SB RASFederal Research Center “Krasnoyarsk Science Center SB RAS” Krasnoyarsk Russia
| | - Vladimir A. Levdansky
- Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology SB RASFederal Research Center “Krasnoyarsk Science Center SB RAS” Krasnoyarsk Russia
| | - Anatoly I. Rubaylo
- Institute of Chemistry and Chemical Technology SB RASFederal Research Center “Krasnoyarsk Science Center SB RAS” Krasnoyarsk Russia
- Siberian Federal University Krasnoyarsk Russia
- Federal Research Center “Krasnoyarsk Science Center SB RAS” Krasnoyarsk Russia
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12
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Mikkonen S, Caslavska J, Gebauer P, Thormann W. Inverse cationic ITP for separation of methadone enantiomers with sulfated β-cyclodextrin as chiral selector. Electrophoresis 2018; 40:659-667. [PMID: 30311251 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201800387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Chiral ITP of the weak base methadone using inverse cationic configurations with H+ as leading component and multiple isomer sulfated β-CD (S-β-CD) as leading electrolyte (LE) additive, has been studied utilizing dynamic computer simulation, a calculation model based on steady-state values of the ITP zones, and capillary ITP. By varying the amount of acidic S-β-CD in the LE composed of 3-morpholino-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid and the chiral selector, and employing glycylglycine as terminating electrolyte (TE), inverse cationic ITP provides systems in which either both enantiomers, only the enantiomer with weaker complexation, or none of the two enantiomers form cationic ITP zones. For the configuration studied, the data reveal that only S-methadone migrates isotachophoretically when the S-β-CD concentration in the LE is between about 0.484 and 1.113 mM. Under these conditions, R-methadone migrates zone electrophoretically in the TE. An S-β-CD concentration between about 0.070 and 0.484 mM results in both S- and R-methadone forming ITP zones. With >1.113 mM and < about 0.050 mM of S-β-CD in the LE both enantiomers are migrating within the TE and LE, respectively. Chiral inverse cationic ITP with acidic S-β-CD in the LE is demonstrated to permit selective ITP trapping and concentration of the less interacting enantiomer of a weak base.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saara Mikkonen
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Division of Applied Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jitka Caslavska
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Petr Gebauer
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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13
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Chankvetadze B. Contemporary theory of enantioseparations in capillary electrophoresis. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1567:2-25. [PMID: 30025609 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The first separation of enantiomers in capillary electrophoresis (CE) counts slightly longer than three decades. Fast development of the practice and theory of chiral CE occurred in the past 30 years and today one can consider this technology to have a solid and mature theoretical background. The goal of the present review is not only to summarize the history and contemporary theory of enantioseparations by using CE but also to present the authors personal view where shall we head to with this attractive technology not only from the viewpoint of separation of enantiomers but also for better understanding the mechanisms of non-covalent (enantioselective) interactions in chemistry, biology, medicine and related disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bezhan Chankvetadze
- Institute of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Tbilisi State University, Chavchavadze Ave 1, 0179 Tbilisi, Georgia.
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14
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Mikkonen S, Thormann W. Computer simulation of the enantioselective separation of weak bases in an online capillary electrophoresis based microanalysis configuration comprising sulfated cyclodextrin as selector. Electrophoresis 2018; 39:1482-1487. [PMID: 29645297 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201800113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Computer simulation was utilized to characterize the electrophoretic processes occurring after reactant mixing in an online assay format used for monitoring the enantioselective N-demethylation of ketamine to norketamine in the presence of highly sulfated γ-cyclodextrin (HS-γ-CD). The incubated reaction mixture (at pH 7.4 and without chiral selector) is bracketed by a low pH BGE containing 2% HS-γ-CD as chiral selector, thereby forming a discontinuous buffer system. Upon power application, simulation provides insight into the formation of moving boundaries and new zones together with the prediction of the behavior of ketamine and norketamine enantiomers. The analytes first migrate cationically in a zone electrophoretic manner until they come in contact with HS-γ-CD upon which enantioseparation is initiated. Complexation has a focusing effect and the electrophoretic transport becomes reversed, that is, toward the anode. Simulation revealed that the initial conditions for the chiral separation, including buffer components concentrations, pH, and ionic strength, are different than those in the BGE. As a consequence thereof, the experimentally determined complexation parameters for the BGE were unable to correctly describe the migration behavior of the analytes in this column section. An increase in the input binding constants by a factor of two to four, as a result of the decreased ionic strength, resulted in simulation data that agreed with experimental findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saara Mikkonen
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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15
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Boublík M, Riesová M, Dubský P, Gaš B. Enhancement of the conductivity detection signal in capillary electrophoresis systems using neutral cyclodextrins as sweeping agents. Electrophoresis 2018; 39:1390-1398. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201800027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Milan Boublík
- Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Martina Riesová
- Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Dubský
- Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Bohuslav Gaš
- Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague Czech Republic
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16
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Ansorge M, Dubský P, Ušelová K. Into the theory of the partial-filling affinity capillary electrophoresis and the determination of apparent stability constants of analyte-ligand complexes. Electrophoresis 2018; 39:742-751. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201700385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ansorge
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Dubský
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Kateřina Ušelová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science; Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Prague Czech Republic
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17
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Steflova J, Storch G, Wiesner S, Stockinger S, Berg R, Trapp O. Investigation of Strain-Promoted Azide–Alkyne Cycloadditions in Aqueous Solutions by Capillary Electrophoresis. J Org Chem 2018; 83:604-613. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b02092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Steflova
- Department
Chemie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse
5−13, 81377 München, Germany
- Department
of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Hlavova 8, 128 40 Prague 2, Czech Republic
| | - Golo Storch
- Department
Chemie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse
5−13, 81377 München, Germany
| | - Sarah Wiesner
- Department
Chemie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse
5−13, 81377 München, Germany
| | - Skrollan Stockinger
- Department
Chemie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse
5−13, 81377 München, Germany
| | - Regina Berg
- Department
Chemie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse
5−13, 81377 München, Germany
| | - Oliver Trapp
- Department
Chemie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Butenandtstrasse
5−13, 81377 München, Germany
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18
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Mikkonen S, Caslavska J, Hruška V, Thormann W. Computer simulation and enantioselective capillary electrophoresis to characterize isomer mixtures of sulfated β-cyclodextrins. Electrophoresis 2017; 39:770-778. [PMID: 29090834 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201700376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The enantiomeric separation of methadone in the presence of multiple isomer mixtures of sulfated β-cyclodextrin (S-β-CD) was studied experimentally with CZE and theoretically using computer simulation. Experiments were performed over many years with several lots of S-β-CD from the same manufacturer with a specified degree of substitution of 7-11. Large differences in the migration patterns were observed between certain lots and it was concluded that the extent of labelling in lots released after a transition time was higher than originally specified. The migration pattern was observed to be associated with (i) the ionic strength increase resulting from using S-β-CDs with a higher charge state and (ii) differences in buffer composition. Apparent binding constants between methadone and the S-β-CD and complex mobilities were determined for different lots of S-β-CD at varying ionic strength using phosphate and 3-morpholino-2-hydroxypropanesulfonic acid buffers. The obtained values were used as input for simulations. For a given ionic strength, agreement between predicted and experimentally observed behavior was obtained for different buffers. R-methadone has a stronger interaction with S-β-CD than S-methadone. For any given configuration there is a distinct S-β-CD concentration range which results in the cationic migration of S-methadone while the migration direction of R-methadone is reversed. This configuration was demonstrated to be applicable for micropreparative CZE separations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saara Mikkonen
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jitka Caslavska
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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19
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Advances in the Use of Cyclodextrins as Chiral Selectors in Capillary Electrokinetic Chromatography: Fundamentals and Applications. Chromatographia 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-016-3167-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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20
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Dubský P, Dvořák M, Ansorge M. Affinity capillary electrophoresis: the theory of electromigration. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:8623-8641. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9799-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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21
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Dubský P, Ördögová M, Malý M, Riesová M. CEval: All-in-one software for data processing and statistical evaluations in affinity capillary electrophoresis. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1445:158-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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22
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Influence of Analyte Concentration on Stability Constant Values Determined by Capillary Electrophoresis. J Chromatogr Sci 2016; 54:1253-62. [DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmw057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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23
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Šolínová V, Mikysková H, Kaiser MM, Janeba Z, Holý A, Kašička V. Estimation of apparent binding constant of complexes of selected acyclic nucleoside phosphonates with β-cyclodextrin by affinity capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 2015; 37:239-47. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201500337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Šolínová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, v.v.i; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Hana Mikysková
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, v.v.i; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Martin Maxmilián Kaiser
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, v.v.i; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Zlatko Janeba
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, v.v.i; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Antonín Holý
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, v.v.i; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Václav Kašička
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, v.v.i; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Prague Czech Republic
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24
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Thormann W, Caslavska J, Mosher RA. Computer simulation of electrophoretic aspects of enantiomer migration and separation in capillary electrochromatography with a neutral selector. Electrophoresis 2015; 36:773-83. [PMID: 25401792 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201400457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2014] [Revised: 11/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A computer simulation study describing the electrophoretic separation and migration of methadone enantiomers in presence of free and immobilized (2-hydroxypropyl)-β-CD is presented. The 1:1 interaction of methadone with the neutral CD was simulated by using experimentally determined mobilities and complexation constants for the complexes in a low-pH BGE comprising phosphoric acid and KOH. The use of complex mobilities represents free solution conditions with the chiral selector being a buffer additive, whereas complex mobilities set to zero provide data that mimic migration and separation with the chiral selector being immobilized, that is CEC conditions in absence of unspecific interaction between analytes and the chiral stationary phase. Simulation data reveal that separations are quicker, electrophoretic displacement rates are reduced, and sensitivity is enhanced in CEC with on-column detection in comparison to free solution conditions. Simulation is used to study electrophoretic analyte behavior at the interface between sample and the CEC column with the chiral selector (analyte stacking) and at the rear end when analytes leave the environment with complexation (analyte destacking). The latter aspect is relevant for off-column analyte detection in CEC and is described here for the first time via the dynamics of migrating analyte zones. Simulation provides insight into means to counteract analyte dilution at the column end via use of a BGE with higher conductivity. Furthermore, the impact of EOF on analyte migration, separation, and detection for configurations with the selector zone being displaced or remaining immobilized under buffer flow is simulated. In all cases, the data reveal that detection should occur within or immediately after the selector zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory, Institute for Infectious Diseases, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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25
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Galievsky VA, Stasheuski AS, Krylov SN. Capillary Electrophoresis for Quantitative Studies of Biomolecular Interactions. Anal Chem 2014; 87:157-71. [DOI: 10.1021/ac504219r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Victor A. Galievsky
- Department
of Chemistry and
Centre for Research on Biomolecular Interactions, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Alexander S. Stasheuski
- Department
of Chemistry and
Centre for Research on Biomolecular Interactions, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Sergey N. Krylov
- Department
of Chemistry and
Centre for Research on Biomolecular Interactions, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
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26
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Determination of thermodynamic values of acidic dissociation constants and complexation constants of profens and their utilization for optimization of separation conditions by Simul 5 Complex. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1364:276-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.08.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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27
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Dagan O, Bercovici M. Simulation Tool Coupling Nonlinear Electrophoresis and Reaction Kinetics for Design and Optimization of Biosensors. Anal Chem 2014; 86:7835-42. [DOI: 10.1021/ac5018953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ofer Dagan
- Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Moran Bercovici
- Faculty
of Mechanical Engineering, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
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28
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Thormann W, Chankvetadze L, Gumustas M, Chankvetadze B. Dynamic computer simulation of electrophoretic enantiomer migration order and separation in presence of a neutral cyclodextrin. Electrophoresis 2014; 35:2833-41. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201400193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory; Institute for Infectious Diseases; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Lali Chankvetadze
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry; School of Exact and Natural Sciences; Tbilisi State University; Tbilisi Georgia
| | - Mehmet Gumustas
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry; School of Exact and Natural Sciences; Tbilisi State University; Tbilisi Georgia
| | - Bezhan Chankvetadze
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry; School of Exact and Natural Sciences; Tbilisi State University; Tbilisi Georgia
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29
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Řezanka P, Navrátilová K, Řezanka M, Král V, Sýkora D. Application of cyclodextrins in chiral capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 2014; 35:2701-21. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201400145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Řezanka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry; Institute of Chemical Technology; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Klára Navrátilová
- Department of Analytical Chemistry; Institute of Chemical Technology; Prague Czech Republic
| | - Michal Řezanka
- Institute for Nanomaterials; Advanced Technologies and Innovation; Technical University of Liberec; Liberec Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Král
- Department of Analytical Chemistry; Institute of Chemical Technology; Prague Czech Republic
| | - David Sýkora
- Department of Analytical Chemistry; Institute of Chemical Technology; Prague Czech Republic
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30
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Caslavska J, Breadmore MC, Thormann W. Dynamic high-resolution computer simulation of isotachophoretic enantiomer separation and zone stability. Electrophoresis 2014; 35:625-37. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201300438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 10/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Caslavska
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory; Institute for Infectious Diseases; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
| | - Michael C. Breadmore
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science; School of Chemistry; University of Tasmania; Hobart Australia
| | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Clinical Pharmacology Laboratory; Institute for Infectious Diseases; University of Bern; Bern Switzerland
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31
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Beneš M, Riesová M, Svobodová J, Tesařová E, Dubský P, Gaš B. Complexation of buffer constituents with neutral complexation agents: part II. Practical impact in capillary zone electrophoresis. Anal Chem 2013; 85:8526-34. [PMID: 23895553 DOI: 10.1021/ac401381d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This article elucidates the practical impact of the complexation of buffer constituents with complexation agents on electrophoretic results, namely, complexation constant determination, system peak development, and proper separation of analytes. Several common buffers, which were selected based on the pH study in Part I of this paper series (Riesová, M.; Svobodová, J.; Tošner, Z.; Beneš, M.; Tesařová, E.; Gaš, B. Anal. Chem., 2013, DOI: 10.1021/ac4013804); e.g., CHES, MES, MOPS, Tricine were used to demonstrate behavior of such complex separation systems. We show that the value of a complexation constant determined in the interacting buffers environment depends not only on the analyte and complexation agent but it is also substantially affected by the type and concentration of buffer constituents. As a result, the complexation parameters determined in the interacting buffers cannot be regarded as thermodynamic ones and may provide misleading information about the strength of complexation of the compound of interest. We also demonstrate that the development of system peaks in interacting buffer systems significantly differs from the behavior known for noncomplexing systems, as the mobility of system peaks depends on the concentration and type of neutral complexation agent. Finally, we show that the use of interacting buffers can totally ruin the results of electrophoretic separation because the buffer properties change as the consequence of the buffer constituents' complexation. As a general conclusion, the interaction of buffer constituents with the complexation agent should always be considered in any method development procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Beneš
- Charles University in Prague , Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic
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32
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Riesová M, Svobodová J, Tošner Z, Beneš M, Tesařová E, Gaš B. Complexation of Buffer Constituents with Neutral Complexation Agents: Part I. Impact on Common Buffer Properties. Anal Chem 2013; 85:8518-25. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4013804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martina Riesová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical
and Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Svobodová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical
and Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Tošner
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry,
Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Beneš
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical
and Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Tesařová
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical
and Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Bohuslav Gaš
- Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Science, Department of Physical
and Macromolecular Chemistry, Prague, Czech Republic
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33
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Dvořák M, Svobodová J, Beneš M, Gaš B. Applicability and limitations of affinity capillary electrophoresis and vacancy affinity capillary electrophoresis methods for determination of complexation constants. Electrophoresis 2013; 34:761-7. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Revised: 11/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Dvořák
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Jana Svobodová
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Martin Beneš
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Bohuslav Gaš
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
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34
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Abstract
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) has matured to one of the major liquid phase enantiodifferentiation techniques since the first report in 1985. This can be primarily attributed to the flexibility as well as the various modes available including electrokinetic chromatography (EKC), micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), and microemulsion electrokinetic chromatography (MEEKC). In contrast to chromatographic techniques, the chiral selector is mobile in the background electrolyte. Furthermore, a large variety of chiral selectors are available that can be easily combined in the same separation system. In addition, the migration order of the enantiomers can be adjusted by a number of approaches. In CE enantiodifferentiations the separation principle is comparable to chromatography while the principle of the movement of the analytes in the capillary is based on electrophoretic phenomena. The present chapter will focus on mechanistic aspects of CE enantioseparations including enantiomer migration order and the current understanding of selector-selectand structures. Selected examples of the basic enantioseparation modes EKC, MEKC, and MEEKC will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard K E Scriba
- Department of Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Philosophenweg 14, 07743, Jena, Germany,
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35
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Jáč P, Scriba GKE. Recent advances in electrodriven enantioseparations. J Sep Sci 2012; 36:52-74. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201200836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2012] [Revised: 09/22/2012] [Accepted: 09/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Jáč
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; School of Pharmacy; Friedrich Schiller University; Jena; Germany
| | - Gerhard K. E. Scriba
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; School of Pharmacy; Friedrich Schiller University; Jena; Germany
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36
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Kubáň P, Hauser PC. Contactless conductivity detection for analytical techniques: Developments from 2010 to 2012. Electrophoresis 2012; 34:55-69. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Kubáň
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic; Brno; Czech Republic
| | - Peter C. Hauser
- Department of Chemistry; University of Basel; Basel; Switzerland
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37
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Beneš M, Svobodová J, Hruška V, Dvořák M, Zusková I, Gaš B. A nonlinear electrophoretic model for PeakMaster: Part IV. Electromigration dispersion in systems that contain a neutral complex-forming agent and a fully charged analyte. Experimental verification. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1267:109-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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38
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Hruška V, Svobodová J, Beneš M, Gaš B. A nonlinear electrophoretic model for PeakMaster: Part III. Electromigration dispersion in systems that contain a neutral complex-forming agent and a fully charged analyte. Theory. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1267:102-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2012] [Revised: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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39
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Svobodová J, Beneš M, Dubský P, Vigh G, Gaš B. Simulation of the effects of complex-formation equilibria in electrophoresis: III. Simultaneous effects of chiral selector concentration and background electrolyte pH. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:3012-20. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2012] [Revised: 07/07/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Svobodová
- Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Martin Beneš
- Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Dubský
- Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Gyula Vigh
- Department of Chemistry; Texas A&M University; College Station; TX; USA
| | - Bohuslav Gaš
- Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Faculty of Science; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
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40
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Hruška V, Beneš M, Svobodová J, Zusková I, Gaš B. Simulation of the effects of complex- formation equilibria in electrophoresis: I. Mathematical model. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:938-47. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201100529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Beneš
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Jana Svobodová
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Iva Zusková
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
| | - Bohuslav Gaš
- Faculty of Science, Department of Physical and Macromolecular Chemistry; Charles University in Prague; Prague; Czech Republic
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41
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Breadmore MC, Kwan HY, Caslavska J, Thormann W. Dynamic high-resolution computer simulation of electrophoretic enantiomer separations with neutral cyclodextrins as chiral selectors. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:958-69. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201100472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Breadmore
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science,; School of Chemistry; University of Tasmania; Hobart; Tasmania; Australia
| | - Hiu Ying Kwan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Visceral Research; University of Bern; Bern; Switzerland
| | - Jitka Caslavska
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Visceral Research; University of Bern; Bern; Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Thormann
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Visceral Research; University of Bern; Bern; Switzerland
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