Computer simulations of sample preconcentration in carrier-free systems and isoelectric focusing in microchannels using simple ampholytes

Dynamic computer simulations of electrophoresis: 2010-2020

The transport of components in liquid media under the influence of an applied electric field can be described with the continuity equation. It represents a nonlinear conservation law that is based upon the balance laws of continuous transport processes and can be solved in time and space numerically. This procedure is referred to as dynamic computer simulation. Since its inception four decades ago, the state of dynamic computer simulation software and its use has progressed significantly. Dynamic models are the most versatile tools to explore the fundamentals of electrokinetic separations and provide insights into the behavior of buffer systems and sample components of all electrophoretic separation methods, including moving boundary electrophoresis, CZE, CGE, ITP, IEF, EKC, ACE, and CEC. This article is a continuation of previous reviews (Electrophoresis 2009, 30, S16–S26 and Electrophoresis 2010, 31, 726–754) and summarizes the progress and achievements made during the 2010 to 2020 time period in which some of the existing dynamic simulators were extended and new simulation packages were developed. This review presents the basics and extensions of the three most used one‐dimensional simulators, provides a survey of new one‐dimensional simulators, outlines an overview of multi‐dimensional models, and mentions models that were briefly reported in the literature. A comprehensive discussion of simulation applications and achievements of the 2010 to 2020 time period is also included.

Instabilities of the pH gradient in carrier ampholyte-based isoelectric focusing: Elucidation of the contributing electrokinetic processes by computer simulation

Electrokinetic processes that lead to pH gradient instabilities in carrier ampholyte-based IEF are reviewed. In addition to electroosmosis, there are four of electrophoretic nature, namely (i) the stabilizing phase with the plateau phenomenon, (ii) the gradual isotachophoretic loss of carrier ampholytes at the two column ends in presence of electrode solutions, (iii) the inequality of the mobilities of positively and negatively charged species of ampholytes, and (iv) the continuous penetration of carbonate from the catholyte into the focusing column. The impact of these factors to cathodic and anodic drifts was analyzed by simulation of carrier ampholyte-based focusing in closed and open columns. Focusing under realistic conditions within a 5 cm long capillary in which three amphoteric low molecular mass dyes were focused in a pH 3-10 gradient formed by 140 carrier ampholytes was investigated. In open columns, electroosmosis displaces the entire gradient toward the cathode or anode whereas the electrophoretic processes act bidirectionally with a transition around pH 4 (drifts for pI > 4 and pI < 4 typically toward the cathode and anode, respectively). The data illustrate that focused zones of carrier ampholytes have an electrophoretic flux and that dynamic simulation can be effectively used to assess the magnitude of each of the electrokinetic destabilizing factors and the resulting drift for a combination of these effects. Predicted drifts of focused marker dyes are compared to those observed experimentally in a setup with coated capillary and whole column optical imaging.

Modeling of formation and prevention of a pure water zone in capillary isoelectric focusing with narrow pH range carrier ampholytes

This paper comprises a continuation of computer simulation studies dealing with carrier ampholyte based CIEF in presence of narrow pH gradients. With this technique, amphoteric sample components with pI values outside the pH gradient are migrating isotachophoretically toward the cathode or anode whereas components with pI values within the gradient become focused. In order to understand the processes occurring in presence of the electric field, the behavior of both carrier ampholytes and amphoteric sample components is investigated by computer modeling. Characteristics of two pH unit gradients with end components having pI values at or around 7.00 and conditions that lead to the formation of a water zone at neutrality were investigated. Data obtained reveal that a zone of water is formed in focusing with carrier ampholytes when the applied pH range does not cover the neutral region, ends at pH 7.00 or begins at pH 7.00. The presence of additional amphoteric components that cover the neutrality region prevent water zone formation under current flow. This situation is met in experiments with narrow pH gradients that end or begin around neutrality. Simulation data reveal that no water zone evolves when atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in the catholyte causes the migration of carbonic acid (in the form of carbonate and/or hydrogen carbonate ions) from the catholyte through the focusing structure. An electrolyte change in the electrode solution does not have an impact on the focusing part but does change the isotachophoretic pattern migrating behind the leading ion.

Microfluidic Isoelectric Focusing of Amyloid Beta Peptides Followed by Micropillar-Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Mass Spectrometry

A novel method for preconcentration and purification of the Alzheimer's disease related amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides by isoelectric focusing (IEF) in 75 nL microchannels combined with their analysis by micropillar-matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) is presented. A semiopen chip-based setup, consisting of open microchannels covered by a lid of a liquid fluorocarbon, was used. IEF was performed in a mixture of four small and chemically well-defined amphoteric carriers, glutamic acid, aspartyl-histidine (Asp-His), cycloserine (cSer), and arginine, which provided a stepwise pH gradient tailored for focusing of the C-terminal Aβ peptides with a pI of 5.3 in the boundary between cSer and Asp-His. Information about the focusing dynamics and location of the foci of Aβ peptides and other compounds was obtained using computer simulation and by performing MALDI-MS analysis directly from the open microchannel. With the established configuration, detection was performed by direct sampling of a nanoliter volume containing the focused Aβ peptides from the microchannel, followed by deposition of this volume onto a chip with micropillar MALDI targets. In addition to purification, IEF preconcentration provides at least a 10-fold increase of the MALDI-MS-signal. After immunoprecipitation and concentration of the eluate in the microchannel, IEF-micropillar-MALDI-MS is demonstrated to be a suitable platform for detection of Aβ peptides in human cerebrospinal fluid as well as in blood plasma.