Apoptosis induction by sulfur-containing compounds in malignant and nonmalignant human cells

4-methylthiobutyl isothiocyanate synergize the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of paclitaxel in human breast cancer cells

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is considered as a major obstacle in achieving an effective treatment of breast cancer. Paclitaxel has been used to treat cancers of the cervical, breast, ovarian and brain but MDR limits its therapeutic potential. Phytochemicals have received much interest in recent decades especially in combination approaches to tackle MDR due to their negligible harm to healthy cells and synergistic potential. Considering this notion, the present study aimed at investigating the synergistic activity of 4-MTBITC and PTX against a panel of breast cancer cells. Our results revealed that the combination had a significant antiproliferative activity against T-47D cells. Mechanistic studies revealed that 4-MTBITC and PTX also promoted the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. In the presence of 4-MTBITC- PTX, T-47D cells were found to be arrested in the G2/M phase which also confirmed the enhancement of late apoptotic cell population in the flow cytometer analysis. In western blot experiment, the combination had a significant decrease in Bcl-xl protein level, whereas a higher level of p53, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-9 proteins compared to individual treatment in T-47D cells. The RT-qPCR analysis also showed that the combination had significant upregulation in the gene expression of p53, cytochrome-c, Apaf-1 and downregulation in the expression of Bcl-2 gene in T-47D cells. Hence, all the results showed that a combination of 4-MTBITC-PTX significantly enhanced the apoptosis pathway in the T-47D cell line which indicates its clinical application for the treatment of breast cancer.Abbreviations: Apaf-1: Apoptotic protease activating factor 1; AO/EB: Acridine orange/ethidium bromide; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2; CI: Combination Index; Cyt-c: Cytochrome c; CO2: Carbon dioxide; DCFH-DA 2,7-Dichloroflourescein diacetate; DMEM: Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; EA: Early apoptosis; EDTA: Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; L929: Normal mouse fibroblast cells; LA: Late apoptosis; L: Live; 4-MTBITC: 4-methylthiobutyl isothiocyanate; MCF-7: Human breast cancer cells; MDA-MB-231: Human triple negative breast cancer cells; MMP: Mitochondria membrane potential; MTT: 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenylte-trazolium bromide; NCCS: National Centre for Cell Science; N: Necrotic; PTX Paclitaxel; PVDF: Polyvinylidene fluoride; PAGE: Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; PBS: Phosphate-buffered saline; RPMI-1640: Roswell Park Memorial Institute Medium- 1640; RT-qPCR: Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; Rh-123: Rhodamine123; g Relative centrifugal force; SDS: Sodium dodecyl sulphate; SEM: Scanning electron microscopy; T-47D: Human estrogen positive breast cancer cells; WB: Western blotting.

Comprehensive Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory, Antiproliferative and Neuroprotective Properties of Cauliflower after Dehydration by Different Drying Methods

Cauliflower (Brassica oleraceae L. var. Botrytis Linnaeus) has various health benefits due to its rich bioactive compound content. However, this fresh vegetable faces challenges related to its perishability and short shelf life. This study explores the effect of five drying methods, namely vacuum drying (VD), convective drying (CD), infrared drying (IRD), low-temperature vacuum drying (LTVD) and vacuum freeze-drying (VFD), on the bioactive compounds and health-promoting properties of cauliflower. Analyses of amino acids, hydroxycinnamic acid and its derivatives, glucosinolates, and isothiocyanates, as well as evaluations of their anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and neuroprotective properties, were conducted based on these five drying methods. The results revealed that samples treated with VFD and IRD had a higher content of amino acids involved in GSL anabolism. Moreover, VFD samples retained hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and glucosinolates to a greater extent than other methods. Nonetheless, the CD and VD samples exhibited higher antiproliferative and neuroprotective effects, which were correlated with their high sulforaphane content. Overall, considering the retention of most bioactive compounds from cauliflower and the topical inflammation amelioration induced in mice, VFD emerges as a more satisfactory option.

Chemopreventive aspects, investigational anticancer applications and current perspectives on allyl isothiocyanate (AITC): a review

Allyl isothiocyanates (AITC) have gained recognition in recent years as effective chemotherapeutic and epigenetic modulators. The chemopreventive properties and toxicological perspectives of AITCs from the last few decades were taken into account by a number of investigations. Their active therapeutic relevance was hindered by a number of factors, including instability under typical physiological conditions and low bioavailability due to low aqueous solubility. In this review, we highlighted the chemopreventive attributes of AITC in relation to its molecular mechanisms and metabolic fate for cancer. Moreover, we emphasized on investigational anticancer activities and various strategies for delivery of AITC in different types of cancer. Considering cellular interactions, we shed light on the toxicological properties of AITCs to address further issues regarding their assessment in therapeutic development. This review identifies knowledge gaps with various contemporary approaches involving most recent studies and may pave the way for a better understanding for the development of novel AITC therapeutics.

In Vitro Antitumor and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Allium-Derived Compounds Propyl Propane Thiosulfonate (PTSO) and Propyl Propane Thiosulfinate (PTS)

Increasing rates of cancer incidence and the side-effects of current chemotherapeutic treatments have led to the research on novel anticancer products based on dietary compounds. The use of Allium metabolites and extracts has been proposed to reduce the proliferation of tumor cells by several mechanisms. In this study, we have shown the in vitro anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effect of two onion-derived metabolites propyl propane thiosulfinate (PTS) and propyl propane thiosulfonate (PTSO) on several human tumor lines (MCF-7, T-84, A-549, HT-29, Panc-1, Jurkat, PC-3, SW-837, and T1-73). We observed that this effect was related to their ability to induce apoptosis regulated by oxidative stress. In addition, both compounds were also able to reduce the levels of some pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-8, IL-6, and IL-17. Therefore, PTS and PTSO may have a promising role in cancer prevention and/or treatment.

In Vitro Evaluation of Sulforaphane and a Natural Analog as Potent Inducers of 5-Fluorouracil Anticancer Activity

Isothiocyanates (R-NCS) are sulphur-containing phytochemicals. The main source are plants of the Brassicaceae family. The best known plant-derived isothiocyanate is sulforaphane that has exhibited anticancer activity in both in vivo and in vitro studies. Recent attempts to expand their use in cancer therapy involve combining them with standard chemotherapeutics in order to increase their therapeutic efficacy. The aim of this paper is to determine the impact of sulforaphane and its natural analog alyssin on the anticancer activity of the well-known anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil. The type of drug-drug interactions was determined in prostate and colon cancer cell lines. Confocal microscopy, western blot and flow cytometry methods were employed to determine the mechanism of cytotoxic and cytostatic action of the combinations. The study revealed that additive or synergistic interactions were observed between 5-fluorouracil and both isothiocyanates, which enhanced the anticancer activity of 5-fluorouracil, particularly in colon cancer cell lines. An increased cytostatic effect was observed in case of alyssin while for sulforaphane the synergistic interaction with 5-fluorouracil involved an intensification of apoptotic cell death.

Meripilus giganteus ethanolic extract exhibits pro-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effects in leukemic cell lines

Background

The interest towards botanicals and plant extracts has strongly risen due to their numerous biological effects and ability to counteract chronic diseases development. Among these effects, chemoprevention which represents the possibility to counteract the cancerogenetic process is one of the most studied. The extracts of mushroom Meripilus giganteus (MG) (Phylum of Basidiomycota) showed to exert antimicrobic, antioxidant and antiproliferative effects. Therefore, since its effect in leukemic cell lines has not been previously evaluated, we studied its potential chemopreventive effect in Jurkat and HL-60 cell lines.

Methods

MG ethanolic extract was characterized for its antioxidant activity and scavenging effect against different radical species. Moreover, its phenolic profile was evaluated by HPLC-MS-MS analyses. Flow cytometry (FCM) analyses of Jurkat and HL-60 cells treated with MG extract (0–750 μg/mL) for 24–72 h- allowed to evaluate its cytotoxicity, pro-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effect. To better characterize MG pro-apoptotic mechanism ROS intracellular level and the gene expression level of FAS, BAX and BCL2 were also evaluated. Moreover, to assess MG extract selectivity towards cancer cells, its cytotoxicity was also evaluated in human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL).

Results

MG extract induced apoptosis in Jurkat and HL-60 cells in a dose- and time- dependent manner by increasing BAX/BCL2 ratio, reducing ROS intracellular level and inducing FAS gene expression level. In fact, reduced ROS level is known to be related to the activation of apoptosis in leukemic cells by the involvement of death receptors. MG extract also induced cell-cycle arrest in HL-60 cells. Moreover, IC₅₀ at 24 h treatment resulted 2 times higher in PBL than in leukemic cell lines.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that MG extract might be considered a promising and partially selective chemopreventive agent since it is able to modulate different mechanisms in transformed cells at concentrations lower than in non-transformed ones.

Induction of the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in human esophageal cancer cells by DS2, a newly synthetic diterpenoid analog, is regulated by Bax and caused by generation of reactive oxygen species

Ent-kaurane diterpene compounds have attracted considerable attention in recent years due to its antitumor, antibacterial, and antiviral activities. However, the clinical development of natural kaurane diterpenes, for example, oridonin for cancer therapy has been hampered by its relatively moderate potency, limited bioavailability. Herein, we report a newly synthetic analog of natural ent-kaurane diterpene, DS2, which exhibits significantly improved activity of antiproliferation against various cancer cell lines relative to oridonin. DS2 treatment triggers the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human esophageal cancer cell lines (EC9706, EC109). Interestingly, normal human esophageal epithelial cells (HEECs) and normal human liver cells (HL-7702) are both significantly more resistant to the growth inhibition by DS2 compared with esophageal cancer cells. The DS2-induced apoptosis in EC9706 cells correlated with the drop of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), release of cytochrome c into the cytosol and activation of caspase-9 and -3. The induction of proapoptotic proteins p21 and Bax were also observed in DS2-treated cells. The DS2-induced apoptosis was significantly attenuated by knockdown of Bax proteins. Meanwhile, the DS2 treatment caused generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human esophageal cancer cells, but not in HEECs, which was attenuated by pretreatment with ROS scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC). More interestingly, the antioxidants pretreatment completely attenuated DS2 mediated loss of the MMP and apoptosis, as well as Bax expression and growth inhibition. In conclusion, the present study reveals that the mitochondria-mediated cell death by DS2 is associated with Bax regulation and ROS generation, and understanding the function and mechanism of DS2 will help us to design better anti-cancer drugs.

6-(Methylsulfonyl) hexyl isothiocyanate as potential chemopreventive agent: molecular and cellular profile in leukaemia cell lines

Numerous laboratory and epidemiological studies show that the risk of developing several types of cancer can be reduced with the employment of natural substances that act with multiple mechanisms. In this context, an important role is played by the isothiocyanates. Recently, 6-(methylsulfonyl)hexyl isothiocyanate (6-MITC), present in the root of Wasabia Japonica, has stimulated the interest of researchers as a chemopreventive agent. In this particular study we have focused on evaluating 6-MITC’s in vitro cytotoxic, cytostatic and cytodifferentiating activities, as well as its pro-apoptotic potential. These effects were investigated by way of flow cytometric analysis of Jurkat and HL-60 cells as well as of healthy lymphocytes extracted from the blood of AVIS donors, in order to verify a potential selectivity of action. The results demonstrate that 6-MITC exerts a stronger cytotoxic effect on tumour cells than on healthy cells. The apoptosis induction exerted by 6-MITC on transformed cells is triggered by an extrinsic pathway, as demonstrated by the statistically significant increase in the percentage of cells with activated caspase-8. It was also observed that 6-MITC is able to limit tumour growth by slowing down and blocking the cell cycle of Jurkat and HL-60 cells respectively, in a dose- and time-related manner, while exerting no activity of any kind on the replication of healthy cells. Finally, by measuring the expression levels of CD-14 and CD-15, 6-MITC showed the ability to induce cytodifferentiation of HL-60 cells into macrophage and granulocytic phenotypes.

Phenethyl isothiocyanate protects against H2O2-induced insulin resistance in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Obesity is associated with systemic oxidative stress and leads to insulin resistance. Phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), a natural dietary isothiocyanate, has been shown to have beneficial effects in improving cellular defense activities against oxidative stress through activation of nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. However, little evidence exists if the antioxidative activity has beneficial effects on glucose metabolism. Here, we tested the preventive potential of PEITC for impaired insulin-induced glucose uptake by oxidative stress in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Treatment with PEITC increased the expression of antioxidative enzymes regulated by Nrf2 such as γ-glutamylcysteine-synthetase, heme oxygenase 1, NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 and glutathione S-transferase, and reduced oxidative stress induced by H₂O₂. Furthermore, PEITC restored impaired insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, translocation of glucose transporter 4 and insulin signaling by H₂O₂. These results indicate that PEITC protected insulin-regulated glucose metabolism impaired by oxidative stress through the antioxidative activity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Castanea sativa Mill. bark extract exhibits chemopreventive properties triggering extrinsic apoptotic pathway in Jurkat cells

Background

Chemoprevention represents the possibility to prevent, stop or reverse the cancerogenetic process. In this context the interest towards natural extracts and botanical drugs has constantly grown due to their phytochemical content. Castanea sativa Mill. (CSM) extracts showed to exert positive effect in the prevention/counteraction of chronic/degenerative diseases, therefore, we evaluated the potential chemopreventive effect of CSM bark extract.

Methods

Flow cytometry (FCM) analyses of Jurkat cells treated with CSM bark extract (0–500 μg·mL⁻¹) for 24–72 h allowed evaluating its cytotoxicity and ability to induce apoptosis through the intrinsic or extrinsic pathways. Moreover, to evaluate CSM bark extract selectivity towards cancer cells, its cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic effect was also evaluated in human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL).

Results

CSM bark extract induced apoptosis in Jurkat cells in a dose- and time- dependent manner activating the extrinsic pathways as evidenced by the increase of activated caspase-8 positive cells. Moreover, IC₅₀ calculated after 24 h treatment resulted 304 and 128 μg·mL⁻¹ in PBL and Jurkat cells respectively.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that CSM bark extract might be considered an interesting potential anti-cancer agent, since it induces apoptosis in cancer cells without appreciable cytotoxic effects on non-transformed cells.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-017-1756-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

4-Methylthiobutyl isothiocyanate (Erucin) from rocket plant dichotomously affects the activity of human immunocompetent cells

Isothiocyanates (ITC) from the Brassicaceae plant family are regarded as promising for prevention and treatment of cancer. However, experimental settings consider their therapeutic action without taking into account the risk of unwanted effects on healthy tissues. In the present study we investigated the effects of Eruca sativa seed extract containing MTBITC (Erucin) and pure Erucin from rocket plant on healthy cells of the human immune system in vitro. Hereby, high doses of the plant extract as well as of Erucin inhibited cell viability of human lymphocytes via induction of apoptosis to comparable amounts. Non-toxic low concentrations of the plant extract and pure Erucin altered the expression of the interleukin (IL)-2 receptor but did not affect further T cell activation, proliferation and the release of the effector molecules interferon (IFN)-gamma and IL-2 of T-lymphocytes. However, the activity of NK-cells was significantly reduced by non-toxic concentrations of the plant extract and pure Erucin. These results indicate that the plant extract and pure Erucin interfere with the function of human T lymphocytes and decreases the activity of NK-cells in comparable concentrations. Long-term clinical studies with ITC-enriched plant extracts from Brassicaceae should take this into account.

Antileukemic activity of sulforaphane in primary blasts from patients affected by myelo- and lympho-proliferative disorders and in hypoxic conditions

Sulforaphane is a dietary isothiocyanate found in cruciferous vegetables showing antileukemic activity. With the purpose of extending the potential clinical impact of sulforaphane in the oncological field, we investigated the antileukemic effect of sulforaphane on blasts from patients affected by different types of leukemia and, taking into account the intrinsically hypoxic nature of bone marrow, on a leukemia cell line (REH) maintained in hypoxic conditions. In particular, we tested sulforaphane on patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and blastic NK cell leukemia. Sulforaphane caused a dose-dependent induction of apoptosis in blasts from patients diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic or myeloid leukemia. Moreover, it was able to cause apoptosis and to inhibit proliferation in hypoxic conditions on REH cells. As to its cytotoxic mechanism, we found that sulforaphane creates an oxidative cellular environment that induces DNA damage and Bax and p53 gene activation, which in turn helps trigger apoptosis. On the whole, our results raise hopes that sulforaphane might set the stage for a novel therapeutic principle complementing our growing armature against malignancies and advocate the exploration of sulforaphane in a broader population of leukemic patients.

Pterostilbene-Isothiocyanate Conjugate Suppresses Growth of Prostate Cancer Cells Irrespective of Androgen Receptor Status

Chemotherapy and anti-hormonal therapies are the most common treatments for non-organ-confined prostate cancer (PCa). However, the effectiveness of these therapies is limited, thus necessitating the development of alternative approaches. The present study focused on analyzing the role of pterostilbene (PTER)-isothiocyanate (ITC) conjugate – a novel class of hybrid compound synthesized by appending an ITC moiety on PTER backbone – in regulating the functions of androgen receptor (AR), thereby causing apoptosis of PCa cells. The conjugate molecule caused 50% growth inhibition (IC50) at 40±1.12 and 45±1.50 μM in AR positive (LNCaP) and negative (PC-3) cells, respectively. The reduced proliferation of PC-3 as well as LNCaP cells by conjugate correlated with accumulation of cells in G2/M phase and induction of caspase dependent apoptosis. Both PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK pathways played an important and differential role in conjugate-induced apoptosis of these PCa cells. While the inhibitor of Akt (A6730) or Akt-specific small interference RNA (siRNA) greatly sensitized PC-3 cells to conjugate-induced apoptosis, on the contrary, apoptosis was accelerated by inhibition of ERK (by PD98059 or ERK siRNA) in case of LNCaP cells, both ultimately culminating in the expression of cleaved caspase-3 protein. Moreover, anti-androgenic activity of the conjugate was mediated by decreased expression of AR and its co-activators (SRC-1, GRIP-1), thus interfering in their interactions with AR. All these data suggests that conjugate-induced inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis are partly mediated by the down regulation of AR, Akt, and ERK signaling. These observations provide a rationale for devising novel therapeutic approaches for treating PCa by using conjugate alone or in combination with other therapeutics.

Preclinical evaluation of 4-methylthiobutyl isothiocyanate on liver cancer and cancer stem cells with different p53 status

Isothiocyanates from plants of the order Brassicales are considered promising cancer chemotherapeutic phytochemicals. However, their selective cytotoxicity on liver cancer has been barely researched. Therefore, in the present study, we systematically studied the chemotherapeutic potency of 4-methylthiobutyl isothiocyanate (MTBITC). Selective toxicity was investigated by comparing its effect on liver cancer cells and their chemoresistant subpopulations to normal primary hepatocytes and liver tissue slices. Additionally, in a first assessment, the in vivo tolerability of MTBITC was investigated in mice. Growth arrest at G2/M and apoptosis induction was evident in all in vitro cancer models treated with MTBITC, including populations with cancer initiating characteristics. This was found independent from TP53; however cell death was delayed in p53 compromised cells as compared to wt-p53 cells which was probably due to differential BH3 only gene regulation i. e. Noxa and its antagonist A1. In normal hepatocytes, no apoptosis or necrosis could be detected after repeated administration of up to 50 µM MTBITC. In mice, orally applied MTBITC was well tolerated over 18 days of treatment for up to 50 mg/kg/day, the highest dose tested. In conclusion, we could show here that the killing effect of MTBITC has a definite selectivity for cancer cells over normal liver cells and its cytotoxicity even applies for chemoresistant cancer initiating cells. Our study could serve for a better understanding of the chemotherapeutic properties of isothiocyanates on human liver-derived cancer cells.

Ethyl 3',4',5'-trimethoxythionocinnamate modulates NF-κB and Nrf2 transcription factors

Recently, we identified a novel cinnamate analog, ethyl 3',4',5'-trimethoxythionocinnamate (ETMTC) as a potent inhibitor of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), such as intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and E-selectin. However, its mechanism of action has not been elucidated so far. Since, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) is the major transcription factor involved in the regulation of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and E-selectin expression, we determined the status of NF-κB activation in ETMTC treated human endothelial cells. Here, we demonstrate that ETMTC inhibits TNF-α-induced nuclear translocation and activation of NF-κB by inhibiting phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα. The inhibition of IκBα phosphorylation and degradation by ETMTC was found to be due to its ability to inhibit IκB kinase activity. In addition, oxidative stress is known to regulate NF-κB activation through TNF-α signaling cascade, therefore, we examined the effect of ETMTC on TNF-α-induced reactive oxygen species generation. We observed that ETMTC significantly inhibits TNF-α-induced reactive oxygen species generation in endothelial cells. To further elucidate the anti-oxidant potential of ETMTC, we examined its effect on induction of anti-oxidant genes viz. glutamate-cysteine ligase, modifier subunit (GCLM), heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) and NAD (P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) in human bronchial epithelial cells. Interestingly, ETMTC significantly induces the anti-oxidant genes viz. GCLM, HO1 and NQO1 by activating nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Thus, ETMTC could be useful towards developing potent anti-inflammatory molecules.

Sulforaphane induces DNA single strand breaks in cultured human cells

Sulforaphane (SFR), an isothiocyanate from cruciferous vegetables, possesses growth-inhibiting and apoptosis-inducing activities in cancer cell lines. Recently, SFR has been shown to promote the mitochondrial formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human cancer cell lines. The present study was undertaken to see whether SFR-derived ROS might cause DNA damage in cultured human cells, namely T limphoblastoid Jurkat and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). 1-3 h treatments with 10-30 microM SFR elicited intracellular ROS formation (as assayed with dihydrorhodamine, DHR, oxidation) as well as DNA breakage (as assessed with fast halo assay, FHA). These effects lacked cell-type specificity, since could be observed in both Jurkat and HUVEC. Differential-pH FHA analysis of damaged DNA showed that SFR causes frank DNA single strand breaks (SSBs); no DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) were found within the considered treatment times (up to 3 h). SFR-derived ROS were formed at the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) level: indeed rotenone or myxothiazol (MRC Complex I and III inhibitors, respectively) abrogated ROS formation. Furthermore ROS were not formed in Jurkat cells pharmacologically depleted of respiring mitochondria (MRC-/Jurkat). Formation of ROS was causally linked to the induction of SSBs: indeed all the experimental conditions capable of preventing ROS formation also prevented the damage of nuclear DNA from SFR-intoxicated cells. As to the toxicological relevance of SSBs, we found that their prevention slightly but significantly attenuated SFR cytotoxicity, suggesting that high-dose SFR toxicity is the result of a complex series of events among which GSH depletion seems to play a pivotal role. In conclusion, the present study identifies a novel mechanism contributing to SFR toxicity which - since DNA damage is a prominent mechanism underlying the cytotoxic activity of established antineoplastic agents - might help to exploit the therapeutic value of SFR in anticancer drug protocols.