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Huber ED, Hintz LL, Wilmoth B, McKenna JR, Hintz WD. Coping with stress: Salt type, concentration, and exposure history limit life history tradeoffs in response to road salt salinization. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 949:174998. [PMID: 39053528 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 06/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Substantial increases in the salinity of freshwater ecosystems has occurred around the globe from causes such as climate change, industrial operations, and the application of road deicing salts. We know very little about how plastic responses in life history traits or rapid evolution of new traits among freshwater organisms could promote stability in ecological communities affected by salinization. We performed a cohort life history analysis from birth to death with 180 individuals of a ubiquitous freshwater zooplankter to understand how life history traits are affected by exposure to two common salt types causing salinization-sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium chloride (CaCl2)-across two environmentally relevant concentrations. We also tested if a multi-generational exposure history to high salinity altered life-history responses. We tracked and measured lifespan, time to maturation, brood size, brood interval, and body size. We found smaller brood sizes but slightly longer lifespans occurred at a low concentration of NaCl (230 mg Cl-/L). The longer lifespans led to more, albeit smaller broods, which generated a similar lifetime reproductive output compared to the no-salt control populations. At higher concentrations of NaCl and CaCl2, we found lifetime reproductive output was reduced by 23 % to 83 % relative to control populations because no tradeoff among life history traits occurred. In CaCl2, we observed shorter life spans, longer time intervals between smaller broods, and smaller body sizes leading to reduced lifetime reproductive output. We also found that a multi-generational exposure to the salt types did not convey any advantages for lifetime reproductive output. In some cases, the exposure history worsened the life history trait responses suggesting maladaptation. Our findings suggest that life history tradeoffs for freshwater species can occur in response to salinization, but these tradeoffs will largely depend on salt type and concentration, which will have implications for biodiversity and ecological stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric D Huber
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Lake Erie Center, The University of Toledo, 6200 Bay Shore Rd., Oregon, OH, USA
| | - Leslie L Hintz
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Lake Erie Center, The University of Toledo, 6200 Bay Shore Rd., Oregon, OH, USA
| | - Bayley Wilmoth
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Lake Erie Center, The University of Toledo, 6200 Bay Shore Rd., Oregon, OH, USA
| | - Jorden R McKenna
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Lake Erie Center, The University of Toledo, 6200 Bay Shore Rd., Oregon, OH, USA
| | - William D Hintz
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Lake Erie Center, The University of Toledo, 6200 Bay Shore Rd., Oregon, OH, USA.
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Prestes JG, Carneiro L, Miiller NOR, Neundorf AKA, Pedroso CR, Braga RR, Sousa R, Vitule JRS. A systematic review of invasive non-native freshwater bivalves. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38973333 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
The introduction of invasive species has become an increasing environmental problem in freshwater ecosystems due to the high economic and ecological impacts it has generated. This systematic review covers publications from 2010 to 2020, focusing on non-native invasive freshwater bivalves, a particularly relevant and widespread introduced taxonomic group in fresh waters. We collected information on the most studied species, the main objectives of the studies, their geographical location, study duration, and type of research. Furthermore, we focused on assessing the levels of ecological evidence presented, the type of interactions of non-native bivalves with other organisms and the classification of their impacts. A total of 397 publications were retrieved. The studies addressed a total of 17 species of non-native freshwater bivalves; however, most publications focused on the species Corbicula fluminea and Dreissena polymorpha, which are recognised for their widespread distribution and extensive negative impacts. Many other non-native invasive bivalve species have been poorly studied. A high geographical bias was also present, with a considerable lack of studies in developing countries. The most frequent studies had shorter temporal periods, smaller spatial extents, and more observational data, were field-based, and usually evaluated possible ecological impacts at the individual and population levels. There were 94 publications documenting discernible impacts according to the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT). However, 41 of these publications did not provide sufficient data to determine an impact. The most common effects of invasive bivalves on ecosystems were structural alterations, and chemical and physical changes, which are anticipated due to their role as ecosystem engineers. Despite a considerable number of studies in the field and advances in our understanding of some species over the past decade, long-term data and large-scale studies are still needed to understand better the impacts, particularly at the community and ecosystem levels and in less-studied geographic regions. The widespread distribution of several non-native freshwater bivalves, their ongoing introductions, and high ecological and economic impacts demand continued research. Systematic reviews such as this are essential for identifying knowledge gaps and guiding future research to enable a more complete understanding of the ecological implications of invasive bivalves, and the development of effective management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliani Giselli Prestes
- Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technology Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
| | - Laís Carneiro
- Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technology Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
| | - Natali Oliva Roman Miiller
- Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technology Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
| | - Ananda Karla Alves Neundorf
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
- Laboratory of Adaptive Biology, Department of Cell Biology, Sector of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
| | - Clemerson Richard Pedroso
- Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technology Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
| | - Raul Rennó Braga
- Department of Animal and Plant Biology, State University of Londrina, Londrina, 86057-970, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Sousa
- CBMA - Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, Braga, 4710-057, Portugal
| | - Jean Ricardo Simões Vitule
- Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technology Sector, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, 81530-000, Brazil
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Venâncio C, Caon K, Lopes I. Cation Composition Influences the Toxicity of Salinity to Freshwater Biota. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:1741. [PMID: 36767106 PMCID: PMC9914514 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20031741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The effects of salinization on freshwater ecosystems have been estimated by testing sodium chloride (NaCl) since it is the most widely used salt as a deicing agent and Na+ and Cl- ions are the most representative in seawater composition. However, calcium, magnesium, and/or potassium are starting to be proposed as potential surrogates for NaCl, but for which ecotoxicological effects are less explored. This study aimed to identify (i) the less toxic salt to freshwater biota to be suggested as a safer alternative deicer and (ii) to contribute to the lower tiers of salinity risk assessment frameworks by identifying a more suitable surrogate salt than NaCl. The battery of ecotoxicity assays with five key trophic level species showed that among the tested salts (MgCl2, CaCl2, and KCl), KCl and CaCl2 seemed to induce the highest and lowest toxicity, respectively, compared with NaCl. CaCl2 is suggested as a safer alternative for use as a deicer and KCl as a surrogate for the risk assessment of seawater intrusion in coastal regions. These results enrich the salt toxicity database aiming to identify and propose more suitable surrogate salts to predict the effects of salinization to a broader extent.
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Coldsnow KD, Relyea RA. The combined effects of macrophytes and three road salts on aquatic communities in outdoor mesocosms. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 287:117652. [PMID: 34186499 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Because of environmental and societal concerns, new strategies are being developed to mitigate the effects of road salt. These include new deicers that are alternatives to or mixtures with the most common road salt, sodium chloride (NaCl), improved techniques and equipment, and biotic mitigation methods. Using outdoor mesocosms, we investigated the impacts of NaCl and two common alternatives, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) on freshwater communities. We also investigated the mitigation ability of a common macrophyte, Elodea. We hypothesized that road salt exposure reduces filamentous algae, zooplankton, and macrocrustaceans, but results in increases in phytoplankton and gastropods. We also hypothesized that MgCl2 is the most toxic salt to communities, followed by CaCl2, and then NaCl. Lastly, we hypothesized that macrophytes mitigate some of the effects of road salt, specifically the effects on primary producers. We found that all three salts reduced filamentous algal biomass and amphipod abundance, but only MgCl2 reduced Elodea biomass. MgCl2 had the largest and longest lasting effects on zooplankton, specifically cladocerans and copepods, which resulted in a significant increase in phytoplankton and rotifers. CaCl2 increased ostracods and decreased snail abundance, but NaCl increased snail abundance. Lastly, while we did not find many interactions between road salt and macrophyte treatments, macrophytes did counteract many of the salt effects on producers, leading to decreased phytoplankton, increased filamentous algae, and altered abiotic responses. Thus, at similar chloride concentrations, NaCl alternatives, specifically MgCl2, are not safer for aquatic ecosystems and more research is needed to find safer road management strategies to protect freshwater ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla D Coldsnow
- Department of Biological Sciences, Darrin Fresh Water Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th St., Troy, NY, 12180, USA.
| | - Rick A Relyea
- Department of Biological Sciences, Darrin Fresh Water Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th St., Troy, NY, 12180, USA
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Coldsnow KD, Hintz WD, Schuler MS, Stoler AB, Relyea RA. Calcium chloride pollution mitigates the negative effects of an invasive clam. Biol Invasions 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-020-02443-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Arnott SE, Celis-Salgado MP, Valleau RE, DeSellas AM, Paterson AM, Yan ND, Smol JP, Rusak JA. Road Salt Impacts Freshwater Zooplankton at Concentrations below Current Water Quality Guidelines. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:9398-9407. [PMID: 32597171 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Widespread use of NaCl for road deicing has caused increased chloride concentrations in lakes near urban centers and areas of high road density. Chloride can be toxic, and water quality guidelines have been created to regulate it and protect aquatic life. However, these guidelines may not adequately protect organisms in low-nutrient, soft water lakes such as those underlain by the Precambrian Shield. We tested this hypothesis by conducting laboratory experiments on six Daphnia species using a soft water culture medium. We also examined temporal changes in cladoceran assemblages in the sediments of two small lakes on the Canadian Shield: one near a highway and the other >3 km from roads where salt is applied in the winter. Our results showed that Daphnia were sensitive to low chloride concentrations with decreased reproduction and increased mortality occurring between 5 and 40 mg Cl-/L. Analysis of cladoceran remains in lake sediments revealed changes in assemblage composition that coincided with the initial application of road salt in this region. In contrast, there were no changes detected in the remote lake. We found that 22.7% of recreational lakes in Ontario have chloride concentrations between 5 and 40 mg/L suggesting that cladoceran zooplankton in these lakes may already be experiencing negative effects of chloride.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley E Arnott
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Martha P Celis-Salgado
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
- Dorset Environmental Science Centre, 1026 Bellwood Acres Road, Dorset, ON, P0A 1E0 Canada
| | - Robin E Valleau
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - Anna M DeSellas
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
- Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks, Dorset Environmental Science Centre, 1026 Bellwood Acres Road, Dorset, ON, P0A 1E0 Canada
| | - Andrew M Paterson
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
- Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks, Dorset Environmental Science Centre, 1026 Bellwood Acres Road, Dorset, ON, P0A 1E0 Canada
| | - Norman D Yan
- Department of Biology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3 Canada
- Friends of the Muskoka Watershed, P. O. Box 416, Bracebridge, ON, P1L 1T7 Canada
| | - John P Smol
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
| | - James A Rusak
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, K7L 3N6 Canada
- Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks, Dorset Environmental Science Centre, 1026 Bellwood Acres Road, Dorset, ON, P0A 1E0 Canada
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Jamshidi A, Goodarzi AR, Razmara P. Long-term impacts of road salt application on the groundwater contamination in urban environments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:30162-30177. [PMID: 32451894 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-09261-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study explores the contamination potential of groundwater due to the use of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the wintertime. The research was conducted in two Iranian cities, Malayer and Hamedan, where groundwater is the major source of water for drinking and irrigating purposes. However, the amount of deicing salt used in the former is about 10 times less than that used in the latter. The assessment of geochemical dataset from 2004 to 2018 revealed no significant trend in the groundwater characteristics of Malayer where the water quality indices were in the range of WHO and USEPA permissible limits. In contrast, the indices had a continually increasing trend (~ 2.3% annually) in Hamedan's supply wells over the same period and particularly near the urban areas that showed higher levels (> 5 times on average) than those observed in Malayer. This could mainly be ascribed to the influx of halite. Based on the USSL diagram, the water samples retrieved from the latter system were mostly classified as C3-S1 (decreasing the soil fertility) and even as C4-S2 (harmful for agriculture activities). Chloride contamination rates also reached 250 mg/L, which could negatively affect the water potability and threaten the aquatics microorganisms. In this region, a rather similar distribution of NaCl and arsenic was observed, implying mobilization of toxic trace metals with the increased salt encroachment into the aquifer. Based on such findings, it is suggested that in snow-influenced cities (e.g., Hamedan), new approaches for winter maintenance be considered to prevent the gradual deterioration of water resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Jamshidi
- Faculty of Engineering, Hamedan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran
| | - Amir Reza Goodarzi
- Faculty of Engineering, Hamedan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran.
| | - Parisa Razmara
- Faculty of Engineering, Hamedan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran
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Dugan HA, Skaff NK, Doubek JP, Bartlett SL, Burke SM, Krivak-Tetley FE, Summers JC, Hanson PC, Weathers KC. Lakes at Risk of Chloride Contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:6639-6650. [PMID: 32353225 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Lakes in the Midwest and Northeast United States are at risk of anthropogenic chloride contamination, but there is little knowledge of the prevalence and spatial distribution of freshwater salinization. Here, we use a quantile regression forest (QRF) to leverage information from 2773 lakes to predict the chloride concentration of all 49 432 lakes greater than 4 ha in a 17-state area. The QRF incorporated 22 predictor variables, which included lake morphometry characteristics, watershed land use, and distance to the nearest road and interstate. Model predictions had an r2 of 0.94 for all chloride observations, and an r2 of 0.86 for predictions of the median chloride concentration observed at each lake. The four predictors with the largest influence on lake chloride concentrations were low and medium intensity development in the watershed, crop density in the watershed, and distance to the nearest interstate. Almost 2000 lakes are predicted to have chloride concentrations above 50 mg L-1 and should be monitored. We encourage management and governing agencies to use lake-specific model predictions to assess salt contamination risk as well as to augment their monitoring strategies to more comprehensively protect freshwater ecosystems from salinization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary A Dugan
- Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. 680 North Park Street Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Nicholas K Skaff
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, 13 Natural Resources Building, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, United States
| | - Jonathan P Doubek
- School of Natural Resources & Environment and Center for Freshwater Research and Education, Lake Superior State University, Sault Sainte Marie, Michigan 49783, United States
| | - Sarah L Bartlett
- NEW Water, 2231 North Quincy Street Green Bay, Wisconsin 54302, United States
| | - Samantha M Burke
- University of Guelph, School of Environmental Sciences, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment & Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Flora E Krivak-Tetley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, 78 College Street, Hanover, New Hampshire 03768, United States
| | - Jamie C Summers
- WSP Canada Incorporated, 2300 Yonge Street, Toronto, Ontario M4P 1E4, Canada
| | - Paul C Hanson
- Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. 680 North Park Street Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Kathleen C Weathers
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, New York 12545, United States
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Nutile SA, Solan ME. Toxicity testing of "eco-friendly" de-icing formulations using Chironomus dilutus. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 246:408-413. [PMID: 30577009 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
An influx of chloride ions from road de-icing solutions can result in toxicological effects to organisms in terrestrial and aquatic environments. As such, "eco-friendly" de-icing alternatives are sought to mitigate environmental impacts of de-icing impervious surfaces, while maintaining human safety. While many alternative de-icers are economically impractical for municipal use, the residential commercial market is flooded with de-icing formulations claiming to be "eco-friendly". Given the little regulation and guidance that surrounds eco-labeling, the meaning of "eco-friendly" remains unclear in the context of biological systems. The objective of the current study was to determine the toxicity of three "eco-friendly" de-icing formulations to Chironomus dilutus using 10 d toxicity tests. The toxicity of these three formulations was compared to a traditional formulation composed entirely of chloride salts. Two of the "eco-friendly" de-icers demonstrated LC50s of 6.61 and 6.32 g/L, which were similar in toxicity to the traditional sodium chloride formulation with a LC50 6.29 g/L. The comparable toxicities of these formulations is likely due to the presence of chloride salts in each of the "eco-friendly" de-icers. The third "eco-friendly" formulation, a urea-based de-icer, demonstrated toxicity an order of magnitude higher than that of the traditional formulation with an LC50 of 0.63 g/L. While C. dilutus may not have been the intended endpoint in consideration when marketing these products as "eco-friendly", consideration of how eco-labeling is utilized and the role of environmental scientists in determining the meaning of such claims must be considered to ensure continued and future protection of the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel A Nutile
- Department of Biology, School of Science, Pennsylvania State University, The Behrend College, Erie, PA, 16563, USA.
| | - Megan E Solan
- Department of Biology, School of Science, Pennsylvania State University, The Behrend College, Erie, PA, 16563, USA
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Schuler MS, Cañedo-Argüelles M, Hintz WD, Dyack B, Birk S, Relyea RA. Regulations are needed to protect freshwater ecosystems from salinization. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 374:rstb.2018.0019. [PMID: 30509918 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic activities such as mining, agriculture and industrial wastes have increased the rate of salinization of freshwater ecosystems around the world. Despite the known and probable consequences of freshwater salinization, few consequential regulatory standards and management procedures exist. Current regulations are generally inadequate because they are regionally inconsistent, lack legal consequences and have few ion-specific standards. The lack of ion-specific standards is problematic, because each anthropogenic source of freshwater salinization is associated with a distinct set of ions that can present unique social and economic costs. Additionally, the environmental and toxicological consequences of freshwater salinization are often dependent on the occurrence, concentration and ratios of specific ions. Therefore, to protect fresh waters from continued salinization, discrete, ion-specific management and regulatory strategies should be considered for each source of freshwater salinization, using data from standardized, ion-specific monitoring practices. To develop comprehensive monitoring, regulatory, and management guidelines, we recommend the use of co-adaptive, multi-stakeholder approaches that balance environmental, social, and economic costs and benefits associated with freshwater salinization.This article is part of the theme issue 'Salt in freshwaters: causes, ecological consequences and future prospects'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Schuler
- Department of Biological Sciences, Darrin Fresh Water Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Miguel Cañedo-Argüelles
- Grup de Recerca Freshwater Ecology and Management (FEM), Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciencies Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Institut de Recerca de l'Aigua (IdRA), Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - William D Hintz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Darrin Fresh Water Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Brenda Dyack
- Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - Sebastian Birk
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141 Essen, Germany.,Centre for Water and Environmental Research, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstrasse 5, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Rick A Relyea
- Department of Biological Sciences, Darrin Fresh Water Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
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