Modified QuEChERS Method for Extracting Thiamethoxam and Imidacloprid from Stingless Bees: Development, Application, and Green Metrics

Characterization of the Metabolites of Neonicotinoid Insecticide Imidaclothiz in Mice

As a member of the neonicotinoid group, imidaclothiz has garnered increasing attention due to its possible health risks. This study investigated the metabolism and distribution of imidaclothiz in mice. Seven imidaclothiz metabolites were found, four of which are known, and three are unknown. The metabolic reactions observed were hydroxylation, nitrate ester hydrolysis, methylation, urea formation, and reduction to NO. Precise quantification revealed that after 2 h of oral administration, imidaclothiz rapidly dispersed into various organs and tissues, peaking at 4 h, and was then swiftly eliminated. No propensity for accumulation in the body, particularly in the liver, was observed. Toxicity data from the T.E.S.T prediction indicated that imidaclothiz had moderate toxicity to rats, and a majority of its metabolites were more toxic than the parent compound. These findings complement the existing knowledge of the imidaclothiz environmental fate in mammals and offer a reference point for its application in agriculture and industry.

Residual determination and acute toxicity of the neonicotinoid clothianidin in the neotropical stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula Latreille, 1811 (Apidae: Meliponini)

Bees play a crucial role as natural pollinators, ensuring the maintenance and stability of the world's biodiversity and agricultural crops. Native bees in neotropical regions belong to the Meliponini tribe, a larger group that differs significantly in behavior and biology from honeybees (e.g., Apis mellifera) and solitary bees (e.g., Osmia spp.). Hence, the exposure and effects of pesticides is also likely to vary among these different species. The aim of this study was to develop an analytical method to determine the presence of the neonicotinoid clothianidin in the Brazilian native stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula (local common name: Jataí). The method used for the chemical analysis involved a QuEChERS technique combined with UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. The developed method was subsequently used to analyze collected field samples. In addition, the acute toxicity of the pesticide to T. angustula was evaluated in a laboratory bioassay evaluating both lethal and sublethal endpoints. The analytical method was successfully developed with detection and quantification limits of 1.55 and 5 μg L-1, respectively, along with a linear range of 1-5 ng mL-1. Clothianidin was detected in environmental samples (9.2-32.9 ng g-1), and the exposure experiments demonstrated acute oral toxicity to adults of T. angustula, (24 h-LD50 of 0.16 ng a.i./bee), as well as no significative interference in acetylcholinesterase activity. Considering the obtained toxicity endpoints for T. angustula and those reported in the literature for other bee species, this study revealed that T. angustula is more (lethally) sensitive to clothianidin than other bee species, including those commonly used in environmental risk assessment studies. This thus also supports the call for using native test species in (regional) risk assessment evaluations.

Abamectin and difenoconazole monitoring in strawberry flowers and pollen sampled from Tetragonisca angustula (Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) hives located in crop vicinities

The increase in agricultural productivity associated with the emergence and the extensive use of pesticides is undeniable. However, strong evidence indicates that this continuous demand is causing serious environmental impacts and bringing toxic effects to associated biota as pollinating insects. The present work aims the determination of the insecticide abamectin (ABA) and the fungicide difenoconazole (DIF) in strawberry flowers (Fragaria x ananassa DUCH.) and pollen sampled from beehives of the stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula Latreille (Hymenoptera: Apidae) located nearby strawberry fields. For analysis, QuEChERS method was optimized, and the analytical performance of those two pesticides was verified. Then, the method was applied to strawberry flowers and the pollen was sampled during three field campaigns. While abamectin was not detected, the systemic fungicide difenoconazole was determined in almost all flowers and pollen samples, demonstrating the major persistence of this pesticide in investigated matrices. The results were then discussed about the difenoconazole application rate and transport to colonies to estimate a preliminary environmental risk assessment for stingless native bees. All calculations were proceeded considering exposure rates and toxicity data from the literature, adapted from Apis mellifera studies. In this sense, the determination, application, and discussion about risk assessment figure out as an important tool to the knowledge about the preliminary risks of native bees exposed to pesticides.