Safety Concerns for the Management of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries

Charting the electric vehicle battery reuse and recycling network in North America

As electric vehicle (EV) sales grow across the world, a common question arises: "what happens to the batteries?" Using expert elicitation, this study identifies the current pathways for retired EV batteries in the United States and Canada and anticipates how the network might evolve in the future. The majority of end-of-life (EOL) EVs are currently managed within the manufacturer and dealership network, but more will enter the independent afterlife market as growing volumes reach EOL out-of-warranty. The interviews indicate that safety, transportation, and accessible information about battery composition and remaining capacity are critical issues across sectors. Participants demonstrated a strong commitment to creating a closed-loop value chain, motivating novel partnerships between recyclers and producers. At the same time, the value of EOL batteries as a material supply source may create competition between recycling and repurposing in the short term. State and federal governments are implementing policies to facilitate access to information and incentivize domestic manufacturing, but compared to other countries, the US lacks a mechanism to ensure that batteries will be collected and recycled. In addition, there is no national tracking system that would provide more robust data on LIB management. Multiple participants noted that the network handles the majority of EOL batteries without significant policy intervention. However, at present, the system depends the economics of reuse and recycling when accounting for the cost of collection and processing, which creates a risk of stranded batteries and/or wasted materials for packs that are lower-value or difficult to access.

Safety and Quality Issues of Counterfeit Lithium-Ion Cells

Lithium-ion batteries continue to transform consumer electronics, mobility, and energy storage sectors, and the applications and demands for batteries keep growing. Supply limitations and costs may lead to counterfeit cells in the supply chain that could affect quality, safety, and reliability of batteries. Our research included studies of counterfeit and low-quality lithium-ion cells, and our observations on the differences between these and original ones, as well as the significant safety implications, are discussed. The counterfeit cells did not include internal protective devices such as the positive temperature coefficient or current interrupt devices that typically offer protection against external short circuits and overcharge conditions, respectively, in cells from original manufacturers. Poor-quality materials and lack of engineering knowledge were also evident on analyses of the electrodes and separators from low-quality manufacturers. When the low-quality cells were subjected to off-nominal conditions, they experienced high temperature, electrolyte leakage, thermal runaway, and fire. In contrast, the authentic lithium-ion cells performed as expected. Recommendations are provided to identify and avoid counterfeit and low-quality lithium-ion cells and batteries.