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Harachi M, Masui K, Shimizu E, Murakami K, Onizuka H, Muragaki Y, Kawamata T, Nakayama H, Miyata M, Komori T, Cavenee WK, Mischel PS, Kurata A, Shibata N. DNA hypomethylator phenotype reprograms glutamatergic network in receptor tyrosine kinase gene-mutated glioblastoma. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2024; 12:40. [PMID: 38481314 PMCID: PMC10935831 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-024-01750-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation is crucial for chromatin structure and gene expression and its aberrancies, including the global "hypomethylator phenotype", are associated with cancer. Here we show that an underlying mechanism for this phenotype in the large proportion of the highly lethal brain tumor glioblastoma (GBM) carrying receptor tyrosine kinase gene mutations, involves the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2), that is critical for growth factor signaling. In this scenario, mTORC2 suppresses the expression of the de novo DNA methyltransferase (DNMT3A) thereby inducing genome-wide DNA hypomethylation. Mechanistically, mTORC2 facilitates a redistribution of EZH2 histone methyltransferase into the promoter region of DNMT3A, and epigenetically represses the expression of DNA methyltransferase. Integrated analyses in both orthotopic mouse models and clinical GBM samples indicate that the DNA hypomethylator phenotype consistently reprograms a glutamate metabolism network, eventually driving GBM cell invasion and survival. These results nominate mTORC2 as a novel regulator of DNA hypomethylation in cancer and an exploitable target against cancer-promoting epigenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mio Harachi
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
- Laboratory for Developmental Genetics, RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-0045, Japan
| | - Kenta Masui
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan.
| | - Erika Shimizu
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Kumiko Murakami
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Hiromi Onizuka
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Muragaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
- Center for Advanced Medical Engineering Research and Development, Kobe University, Kobe, Hyogo, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Takakazu Kawamata
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Hisako Nakayama
- Department of Physiology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Mariko Miyata
- Department of Physiology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Takashi Komori
- Department of Neuropathology, Tokyo Metropolitan Neurological Hospital, Musashinodai, Tokyo, 156-8506, Japan
| | - Webster K Cavenee
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Paul S Mischel
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Atsushi Kurata
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Shibata
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8666, Japan
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Masui K, Mischel PS. Metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming in the pathogenesis of glioblastoma: Toward the establishment of "metabolism-based pathology". Pathol Int 2023; 73:533-541. [PMID: 37755062 DOI: 10.1111/pin.13379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Molecular genetic approaches are now mandatory for cancer diagnostics, especially for brain tumors. Genotype-based diagnosis has predominated over the phenotype-based approach, with its prognostic and predictive powers. However, comprehensive genetic testing would be difficult to perform in the clinical setting, and translational research is required to histologically decipher the peculiar biology of cancer. Of interest, recent studies have demonstrated discrete links between oncogenotypes and the resultant metabolic phenotypes, revealing cancer metabolism as a promising histologic surrogate to reveal specific characteristics of each cancer type and indicate the best way to manage cancer patients. Here, we provide an overview of our research progress to work on cancer metabolism, with a particular focus on the genomically well-characterized malignant tumor glioblastoma. With the use of clinically relevant animal models and human tissue, we found that metabolic reprogramming plays a major role in the aggressive cancer biology by conferring therapeutic resistance to cancer cells and rewiring their epigenomic landscapes. We further discuss our future endeavor to establish "metabolism-based pathology" on how the basic knowledge of cancer metabolism could be leveraged to improve the management of patients by linking cancer cell genotype, epigenotype, and phenotype through metabolic reprogramming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Masui
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Paul S Mischel
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Sarafan ChEM-H, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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Childhood Brain Tumors: A Review of Strategies to Translate CNS Drug Delivery to Clinical Trials. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15030857. [PMID: 36765816 PMCID: PMC9913389 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15030857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain and spinal tumors affect 1 in 1000 people by 25 years of age, and have diverse histological, biological, anatomical and dissemination characteristics. A mortality of 30-40% means the majority are cured, although two-thirds have life-long disability, linked to accumulated brain injury that is acquired prior to diagnosis, and after surgery or chemo-radiotherapy. Only four drugs have been licensed globally for brain tumors in 40 years and only one for children. Most new cancer drugs in clinical trials do not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Techniques to enhance brain tumor drug delivery are explored in this review, and cover those that augment penetration of the BBB, and those that bypass the BBB. Developing appropriate delivery techniques could improve patient outcomes by ensuring efficacious drug exposure to tumors (including those that are drug-resistant), reducing systemic toxicities and targeting leptomeningeal metastases. Together, this drug delivery strategy seeks to enhance the efficacy of new drugs and enable re-evaluation of existing drugs that might have previously failed because of inadequate delivery. A literature review of repurposed drugs is reported, and a range of preclinical brain tumor models available for translational development are explored.
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Yano H, Ikegame Y, Miwa K, Nakayama N, Maruyama T, Ikuta S, Yokoyama K, Muragaki Y, Iwama T, Shinoda J. Radiological Prediction of Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) Mutational Status and Pathological Verification for Lower-Grade Astrocytomas. Cureus 2022; 14:e27157. [PMID: 36017268 PMCID: PMC9393092 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.27157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and objective The isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) status of patients with World Health Organization (WHO) grade II or III astrocytoma is essential for understanding its biological features and determining therapeutic strategies. This study aimed to use radiological analysis to predict the IDH status of patients with lower-grade astrocytomas and to verify the pathological implications. Methods In this study, 47 patients with grade II (17 cases) or III astrocytomas (30 cases), based on 2016 WHO Classification, underwent methionine (MET) positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) on the same day between January 2013 and June 2020. The patients were retrospectively assessed. Immunohistochemistry showed 23 cases of IDH-mutant and 24 of IDH-wildtype. Based on fluid-attenuated recovery inversion (FLAIR)/T2 imaging, three doctors blinded to clinical data independently allocated 18 patients to the clear boundary group between the tumor and the normal brain and 29 to the unclear boundary group. The peak ratios of N-acetylaspartate (NAA)/creatine (Cr), choline (Cho)/Cr, and Cho/NAA and the tumor-to-normal region (T/N) ratio for maximum accumulation in MET-PET were calculated. For statistical analysis, Fisher’s exact test was used to assess associations between two variables, and the Mann-Whitney U test to compare the values between the IDH-wildtype and IDH-mutant groups. The optimal cut-off values of MET T/N ratio and MRS parameters for discriminating IDH-wildtype from IDH-mutant were obtained using receiver operating characteristics curves. Results The unclear boundary group had significantly more IDH-wildtype cases than the clear boundary group (P<0.001). The IDH-wildtype group had significantly lower Cho/Cr (<1.84) and Cho/NAA (<1.62) ratios (P=0.02 and P=0.047, respectively) and a higher MET T/N ratio (>1.44, P=0.02) than the IDH-mutant group. The odds for the IDH-wildtype were 0.22 for patients who fulfilled none of the four criteria, including boundary status and three ratios, and 0.9 for all four criteria. Conclusions These results suggest that the combination of MRI, MRS, and MET-PET examination could be helpful for the prediction of IDH status in WHO grade II/III gliomas.
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Masui K, Harachi M, Ikegami S, Yang H, Onizuka H, Yong WH, Cloughesy TF, Muragaki Y, Kawamata T, Arai N, Komori T, Cavenee WK, Mischel PS, Shibata N. mTORC2 links growth factor signaling with epigenetic regulation of iron metabolism in glioblastoma. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:19740-19751. [PMID: 31712311 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In cancer, aberrant growth factor receptor signaling reprograms cellular metabolism and global gene transcription to drive aggressive growth, but the underlying mechanisms are not well-understood. Here we show that in the highly lethal brain tumor glioblastoma (GBM), mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2), a critical core component of the growth factor signaling system, couples acetyl-CoA production with nuclear translocation of histone-modifying enzymes including pyruvate dehydrogenase and class IIa histone deacetylases to globally alter histone acetylation. Integrated analyses in orthotopic mouse models and in clinical GBM samples reveal that mTORC2 controls iron metabolisms via histone H3 acetylation of the iron-related gene promoter, promoting tumor cell survival. These results nominate mTORC2 as a critical epigenetic regulator of iron metabolism in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Masui
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan
| | - Mio Harachi
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan
| | - Shiro Ikegami
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Huijun Yang
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Hiromi Onizuka
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan
| | - William H Yong
- Henry Singleton Brain Tumor Program, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095.,Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Timothy F Cloughesy
- Henry Singleton Brain Tumor Program, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095.,Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095.,Department of Neurology, David Geffen UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Yoshihiro Muragaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan
| | - Takakazu Kawamata
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Arai
- Laboratory of Neuropathology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
| | - Takashi Komori
- Department of Neuropathology, Tokyo Metropolitan Neurological Hospital, Musashinodai, Tokyo 183-0042, Japan
| | - Webster K Cavenee
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093.,Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Paul S Mischel
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093.,Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093.,Department of Pathology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Noriyuki Shibata
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan
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Duchatel RJ, Jackson ER, Alvaro F, Nixon B, Hondermarck H, Dun MD. Signal Transduction in Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma. Proteomics 2019; 19:e1800479. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201800479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Duchatel
- Cancer Signalling Research Group School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy Faculty of Health and Medicine University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research Innovation and Translation Hunter Medical Research Institute Lambton NSW 2305 Australia
| | - Evangeline R. Jackson
- Cancer Signalling Research Group School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy Faculty of Health and Medicine University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research Innovation and Translation Hunter Medical Research Institute Lambton NSW 2305 Australia
| | - Frank Alvaro
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research Innovation and Translation Hunter Medical Research Institute Lambton NSW 2305 Australia
- John Hunter Children's Hospital Faculty of Health and Medicine University of Newcastle New Lambton Heights NSW 2305 Australia
| | - Brett Nixon
- Priority Research Centre for Reproductive Science School of Environmental and Life Sciences University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia
| | - Hubert Hondermarck
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research Innovation and Translation Hunter Medical Research Institute Lambton NSW 2305 Australia
- Cancer Neurobiology Group School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy Faculty of Health and Medicine University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia
| | - Matthew D. Dun
- Cancer Signalling Research Group School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy Faculty of Health and Medicine University of Newcastle Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre for Cancer Research Innovation and Translation Hunter Medical Research Institute Lambton NSW 2305 Australia
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Masui K, Kato Y, Sawada T, Mischel PS, Shibata N. Molecular and Genetic Determinants of Glioma Cell Invasion. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E2609. [PMID: 29207533 PMCID: PMC5751212 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18122609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A diffusely invasive nature is a major obstacle in treating a malignant brain tumor, "diffuse glioma", which prevents neurooncologists from surgically removing the tumor cells even in combination with chemotherapy and radiation. Recently updated classification of diffuse gliomas based on distinct genetic and epigenetic features has culminated in a multilayered diagnostic approach to combine histologic phenotypes and molecular genotypes in an integrated diagnosis. However, it is still a work in progress to decipher how the genetic aberrations contribute to the aggressive nature of gliomas including their highly invasive capacity. Here we depict a set of recent discoveries involving molecular genetic determinants of the infiltrating nature of glioma cells, especially focusing on genetic mutations in receptor tyrosine kinase pathways and metabolic reprogramming downstream of common cancer mutations. The specific biology of glioma cell invasion provides an opportunity to explore the genotype-phenotype correlation in cancer and develop novel glioma-specific therapeutic strategies for this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenta Masui
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan.
| | - Yoichiro Kato
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan.
| | - Tatsuo Sawada
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan.
| | - Paul S Mischel
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Noriyuki Shibata
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo Women's Medical University, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan.
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Developing chemotherapy for diffuse pontine intrinsic gliomas (DIPG). Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2017; 120:111-119. [PMID: 29198324 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2017.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prognosis of diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) is poor, with a median survival of 10 months after radiation. At present, chemotherapy has failed to show benefits over radiation. Advances in biotechnology have enabled the use of autopsy specimens for genomic analyses and molecular profiling of DIPG, which are quite different from those of supratentorial high grade glioma. Recently, combined treatments of cytotoxic agents with target inhibitors, based on biopsied tissue, are being examined in on-going trials. Spontaneous DIPG mice models have been recently developed that is useful for preclinical studies. Finally, the convection-enhanced delivery could be used to infuse drugs directly into the brainstem parenchyma, to which conventional systemic administration fails to achieve effective concentration. The WHO glioma classification defines a diffuse midline glioma with a H3-K27M-mutation, and we expect increase of tissue confirmation of DIPG, which will give us the biological information helping the development of a targeted therapy.
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Multipotency and therapeutic potential of NG2 cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2017; 141:42-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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10
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Hashizume R, Gupta N. Patient-derived Tumor Models for Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Gliomas. Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:98-103. [PMID: 27212051 PMCID: PMC5327452 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x14666160523144117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract: Background: Diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas represent a unique subtype of primary brain tumors occuring in a specific location and age. Their growth demonstrates early invasion and, following diagnosis, rapid growth not responsive to common therapies. Until recently, the genetic and cellular basis of these tumors was unknown. Genetic evidence implicates mutations in the histone genes in the origin of these tumors. Methods: Surgical biopsies performed on selected patients have resulted in the establishment of anatomically accurate mouse models that have been used to examine patterns of growth and response to new therapeutic agents. Results: Human derived pontine glioma models recapitulate the invasive patterns of growth. The grade of the original tumor affects the latency of tumor growth after implantation. Conclusion: The use of human-derived xenograft models allows for improved pre-clinical testing of new therapeutic targets in a tumor- and organ-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nalin Gupta
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Room M779, 550 16th Street, 4th Floor, San Francisco, California 94143-0137, USA
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Robison NJ, Kieran MW. Identification of novel biologic targets in the treatment of newly diagnosed diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2016:625-8. [PMID: 24451808 DOI: 10.14694/edbook_am.2012.32.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs) carry an extremely poor prognosis. Standard practice has been to base the diagnosis on classic imaging and clinical characteristics and to treat with focal radiation therapy, usually accompanied with experimental therapy. As a result of the desire to avoid upfront biopsy, little has been learned regarding the molecular features of this disease. Findings from several autopsy series have included loss of p53 and PTEN, and amplification of PDGFR. Based on these and other findings, murine models have been generated and provide a new tool for preclinical testing. DIPG biopsy at diagnosis has increasingly become incorporated into national protocols at several centers, bringing the prospect of a better understanding of DIPG biology in the future. Initial analyses of pretreatment tumors cast valuable new light and establish the importance of p53 inactivation and the RTK-PI3K pathway in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Robison
- From the Dana-Farber Children's Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA
| | - Mark W Kieran
- From the Dana-Farber Children's Hospital Cancer Center, Boston, MA
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Baker SJ, Ellison DW, Gutmann DH. Pediatric gliomas as neurodevelopmental disorders. Glia 2015; 64:879-95. [PMID: 26638183 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Brain tumors represent the most common solid tumor of childhood, with gliomas comprising the largest fraction of these cancers. Several features distinguish them from their adult counterparts, including their natural history, causative genetic mutations, and brain locations. These unique properties suggest that the cellular and molecular etiologies that underlie their development and maintenance might be different from those that govern adult gliomagenesis and growth. In this review, we discuss the genetic basis for pediatric low-grade and high-grade glioma in the context of developmental neurobiology, and highlight the differences between histologically-similar tumors arising in children and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne J Baker
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - David W Ellison
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee
| | - David H Gutmann
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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13
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Wang G, Wang JJ, Tang HM, To SST. Targeting strategies on miRNA-21 and PDCD4 for glioblastoma. Arch Biochem Biophys 2015; 580:64-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Vong KI, Leung CKY, Behringer RR, Kwan KM. Sox9 is critical for suppression of neurogenesis but not initiation of gliogenesis in the cerebellum. Mol Brain 2015; 8:25. [PMID: 25888505 PMCID: PMC4406026 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-015-0115-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The high mobility group (HMG) family transcription factor Sox9 is critical for induction and maintenance of neural stem cell pool in the central nervous system (CNS). In the spinal cord and retina, Sox9 is also the master regulator that defines glial fate choice by mediating the neurogenic-to-gliogenic fate switch. On the other hand, the genetic repertoire governing the maintenance and fate decision of neural progenitor pool in the cerebellum has remained elusive. Results By employing the Cre/loxP strategy, we specifically inactivated Sox9 in the mouse cerebellum. Unexpectedly, the self-renewal capacity and multipotency of neural progenitors at the cerebellar ventricular zone (VZ) were not perturbed upon Sox9 ablation. Instead, the mutants exhibited an increased number of VZ-derived neurons including Purkinje cells and GABAergic interneurons. Simultaneously, we observed continuous neurogenesis from Sox9-null VZ at late gestation, when normally neurogenesis ceases to occur and gives way for gliogenesis. Surprisingly, glial cell specification was not affected upon Sox9 ablation. Conclusion Our findings suggest Sox9 may mediate the neurogenic-to-gliogenic fate switch in mouse cerebellum by modulating the termination of neurogenesis, and therefore indicate a functional discrepancy of Sox9 between the development of cerebellum and other major neural tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keng Ioi Vong
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, P.R. China.
| | | | - Richard R Behringer
- Department of Genetics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Kin Ming Kwan
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, P.R. China. .,RGC-AoE Centre for Organelle Biogenesis and Function, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, P.R. China. .,Partner State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology (CUHK), The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, P.R. China.
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Abstract
Given their capacity to regenerate cells lost through injury or disease, stem cells offer new vistas into possible treatments for degenerative diseases and their underlying causes. As such, stem cell biology is emerging as a driving force behind many studies in regenerative medicine. This review focuses on the current understanding of the applications of stem cells in treating ailments of the human brain, with an emphasis on neurodegenerative diseases. Two types of neural stem cells are discussed: endogenous neural stem cells residing within the adult brain and pluripotent stem cells capable of forming neural cells in culture. Endogenous neural stem cells give rise to neurons throughout life, but they are restricted to specialized regions in the brain. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms regulating these cells is key in determining their therapeutic potential as well as finding mechanisms to activate dormant stem cells outside these specialized microdomains. In parallel, patient-derived stem cells can be used to generate neural cells in culture, providing new tools for disease modeling, drug testing, and cell-based therapies. Turning these technologies into viable treatments will require the integration of basic science with clinical skills in rehabilitation.
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Transformation of quiescent adult oligodendrocyte precursor cells into malignant glioma through a multistep reactivation process. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E4214-23. [PMID: 25246577 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1414389111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
How malignant gliomas arise in a mature brain remains a mystery, hindering the development of preventive and therapeutic interventions. We previously showed that oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) can be transformed into glioma when mutations are introduced perinatally. However, adult OPCs rarely proliferate compared with their perinatal counterparts. Whether these relatively quiescent cells have the potential to transform is unknown, which is a critical question considering the late onset of human glioma. Additionally, the premalignant events taking place between initial mutation and a fully developed tumor mass are particularly poorly understood in glioma. Here we used a temporally controllable Cre transgene to delete p53 and NF1 specifically in adult OPCs and demonstrated that these cells consistently give rise to malignant gliomas. To investigate the transforming process of quiescent adult OPCs, we then tracked these cells throughout the premalignant phase, which revealed a dynamic multistep transformation, starting with rapid but transient hyperproliferative reactivation, followed by a long period of dormancy, and then final malignant transformation. Using pharmacological approaches, we discovered that mammalian target of rapamycin signaling is critical for both the initial OPC reactivation step and late-stage tumor cell proliferation and thus might be a potential target for both glioma prevention and treatment. In summary, our results firmly establish the transforming potential of adult OPCs and reveal an actionable multiphasic reactivation process that turns slowly dividing OPCs into malignant gliomas.
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17
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Stem cells and gliomas: past, present, and future. J Neurooncol 2014; 119:547-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s11060-014-1498-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Robison NJ, Kieran MW. Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma: a reassessment. J Neurooncol 2014; 119:7-15. [PMID: 24792486 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-014-1448-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) is a disease of childhood whose abysmal prognosis has remained unchanged for over 50 years. Biologic investigation has been stymied by lack of pretreatment tissue, as biopsy has been reserved for atypical cases. Recent advances in surgical and molecular-analytic techniques have increased the safety and potential utility of biopsy; brainstem biopsy has now been incorporated into several prospective clinical trials. These and other recent efforts have yielded new insights into DIPG molecular pathogenesis, and opened new avenues for investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Robison
- Pediatric Neuro-Oncology Program, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, 4650 W Sunset Blvd, MS#54, Los Angeles, CA, 90027, USA,
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Stem cell niches in glioblastoma: a neuropathological view. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:725921. [PMID: 24834433 PMCID: PMC4009309 DOI: 10.1155/2014/725921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Revised: 03/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) stem cells (GSCs), responsible for tumor growth, recurrence, and resistance to therapies, are considered the real therapeutic target, if they had no molecular mechanisms of resistance, in comparison with the mass of more differentiated cells which are insensitive to therapies just because of being differentiated and nonproliferating. GSCs occur in tumor niches where both stemness status and angiogenesis are conditioned by the microenvironment. In both perivascular and perinecrotic niches, hypoxia plays a fundamental role. Fifteen glioblastomas have been studied by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence for stemness and differentiation antigens. It has been found that circumscribed necroses develop inside hyperproliferating areas that are characterized by high expression of stemness antigens. Necrosis developed inside them because of the imbalance between the proliferation of tumor cells and endothelial cells; it reduces the number of GSCs to a thin ring around the former hyperproliferating area. The perinecrotic GSCs are nothing else that the survivors remnants of those populating hyperproliferating areas. In the tumor, GSCs coincide with malignant areas so that the need to detect where they are located is not so urgent.
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20
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Goffart N, Kroonen J, Rogister B. Glioblastoma-initiating cells: relationship with neural stem cells and the micro-environment. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 5:1049-71. [PMID: 24202333 PMCID: PMC3795378 DOI: 10.3390/cancers5031049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM, WHO grade IV) is the most common and lethal subtype of primary brain tumor with a median overall survival of 15 months from the time of diagnosis. The presence in GBM of a cancer population displaying neural stem cell (NSC) properties as well as tumor-initiating abilities and resistance to current therapies suggests that these glioblastoma-initiating cells (GICs) play a central role in tumor development and are closely related to NSCs. However, it is nowadays still unclear whether GICs derive from NSCs, neural progenitor cells or differentiated cells such as astrocytes or oligodendrocytes. On the other hand, NSCs are located in specific regions of the adult brain called neurogenic niches that have been shown to control critical stem cell properties, to nourish NSCs and to support their self-renewal. This “seed-and-soil” relationship has also been adapted to cancer stem cell research as GICs also require a specific micro-environment to maintain their “stem cell” properties. In this review, we will discuss the controversies surrounding the origin and the identification of GBM stem cells and highlight the micro-environment impact on their biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Goffart
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, GIGA-Neurosciences Research Center, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium; E-Mail:
| | - Jérôme Kroonen
- Human Genetics, CHU and University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium; E-Mail:
- The T&P Bohnenn Laboratory for Neuro-Oncology, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht 3556, The Netherlands; E-Mail:
| | - Bernard Rogister
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, GIGA-Neurosciences Research Center, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium; E-Mail:
- Department of Neurology, CHU and University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
- GIGA-Development, Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +32-4-366-5950; Fax: +32-4-366-5912
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21
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The molecular and cell biology of pediatric low-grade gliomas. Oncogene 2013; 33:2019-26. [PMID: 23624918 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pilocytic astrocytoma (PA) is the most common glial cell tumor arising in children. Sporadic cases are associated with KIAA1549:BRAF fusion rearrangements, while 15-20% of children develop PA in the context of the neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) inherited tumor predisposition syndrome. The unique predilection of these tumors to form within the optic pathway and brainstem (NF1-PA) and cerebellum (sporadic PA) raises the possibility that gliomagenesis requires more than biallelic inactivation of the NF1 tumor suppressor gene or expression of the KIAA1549:BRAF transcript. Several etiologic explanations include differential susceptibilities of preneoplastic neuroglial cell types in different brain regions to these glioma-causing genetic changes, contributions from non-neoplastic cells and signals in the tumor microenvironment, and genomic modifiers that confer glioma risk. As clinically-faithful rodent models of sporadic PA are currently under development, Nf1 genetically-engineered mouse (GEM) models have served as tractable systems to study the role of the cell of origin, deregulated intracellular signaling, non-neoplastic cells in the tumor microenvironment and genomic modifiers in gliomagenesis. In this report, we highlight advances in Nf1-GEM modeling and review new experimental evidence that supports the emerging concept that Nf1- and KIAA1549:BRAF-induced gliomas arise from specific cell types in particular brain locations.
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22
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Broniscer A, Baker SD, Wetmore C, Pai Panandiker AS, Huang J, Davidoff AM, Onar-Thomas A, Panetta JC, Chin TK, Merchant TE, Baker JN, Kaste SC, Gajjar A, Stewart CF. Phase I trial, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of vandetanib and dasatinib in children with newly diagnosed diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Clin Cancer Res 2013; 19:3050-8. [PMID: 23536435 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-13-0306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Testing of promising drug combinations is crucial in the treatment of diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG). As the VEGF and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) pathways are critical in gliomas, we evaluated the safety, maximum tolerated dose (MTD), pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of vandetanib, a VEGFR-2 inhibitor, combined with dasatinib, a potent PDGFR inhibitor, during and after radiotherapy in children with newly diagnosed DIPG. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Dasatinib was started concurrently with radiotherapy. Vandetanib was started 8 days later. We tested increasing doses of vandetanib (65 and 85 mg/m(2) once daily) and dasatinib (65 and 85 mg/m(2) twice daily). Dose-limiting toxicities were evaluated during the first 6 weeks of therapy. Plasma pharmacokinetics was obtained on days 8 and 42 ± 3 in all patients and concomitantly with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) when possible. Inhibition of targets of dasatinib in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was evaluated. RESULTS Twenty-five patients were treated. Treatment was well tolerated. The median duration of treatment was 184 days. Diarrhea was the most significant toxicity. Three patients experienced substantial myelosuppression. The steady-state plasma pharmacokinetics of vandetanib was comparable with previous studies. Although the plasma exposure to dasatinib decreased from days 8 to 42, it remained similar to adult studies. CSF to plasma exposure of vandetanib and dasatinib were approximately 2% in 2 patients. Phosphorylated 70S6K decreased during therapy in PBMCs. CONCLUSIONS The MTD of vandetanib and dasatinib in combination was 65 mg/m(2) for each drug. Other studies are underway to test dasatinib and other PDGFR inhibitors alone or in combination for this deadly cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Broniscer
- Department of Oncology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA.
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23
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Solga AC, Gianino SM, Gutmann DH. NG2-cells are not the cell of origin for murine neurofibromatosis-1 (Nf1) optic glioma. Oncogene 2013; 33:289-99. [PMID: 23318450 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2012.580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Revised: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Low-grade glial neoplasms (astrocytomas) represent one of the most common brain tumors in the pediatric population. These tumors frequently form in the optic pathway (optic pathway gliomas, OPGs), especially in children with the neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1)-inherited tumor predisposition syndrome. To model these tumors in mice, we have previously developed several Nf1 genetically-engineered mouse strains that form optic gliomas. However, there are three distinct macroglial cell populations in the optic nerve (astrocytes, NG2+ (nerve/glial antigen 2) cells and oligodendrocytes). The presence of NG2+ cells in the optic nerve raises the intriguing possibility that these cells could be the tumor-initiating cells, as has been suggested for adult glioma. In this report, we used a combination of complementary in vitro and novel genetically-engineered mouse strains in vivo to determine whether NG2+ cells could give rise to Nf1 optic glioma. First, we show that Nf1 inactivation results in a cell-autonomous increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein+ (GFAP+), but not in NG2+, cell proliferation in vitro. Second, similar to the GFAP-Cre transgenic strain that drives Nf1 optic gliomagenesis, NG2-expressing cells also give rise to all three macroglial lineages in vivo. Third, in contrast to the GFAP-Cre strain, Nf1 gene inactivation in NG2+ cells is not sufficient for optic gliomagenesis in vivo. Collectively, these data demonstrate that NG2+ cells are not the cell of origin for mouse optic glioma, and support a model in which gliomagenesis requires Nf1 loss in specific neuroglial progenitors during embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Solga
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - S M Gianino
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - D H Gutmann
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
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24
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Hashizume R, Smirnov I, Liu S, Phillips JJ, Hyer J, McKnight TR, Wendland M, Prados M, Banerjee A, Nicolaides T, Mueller S, James CD, Gupta N. Characterization of a diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma cell line: implications for future investigations and treatment. J Neurooncol 2012; 110:305-13. [PMID: 22983601 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-012-0973-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 09/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas arise almost exclusively in children, and despite advances in treatment, the majority of patients die within 2 years after initial diagnosis. Because of their infiltrative nature and anatomic location in an eloquent area of the brain, most pontine gliomas are treated without a surgical biopsy. The corresponding lack of tissue samples has resulted in a limited understanding of the underlying genetic and molecular biologic abnormalities associated with pontine gliomas, and is a substantial obstacle for the preclinical testing of targeted therapeutic agents for these tumors. We have established a human glioma cell line that originated from surgical biopsy performed on a patient with a pontine glioma. To insure sustainable in vitro propagation, tumor cells were modified with hTERT (human telomerase ribonucleoprotein reverse transcriptase), and with a luciferase reporter to enable non-invasive bioluminescence imaging. The hTERT modified cells are tumorigenic in athymic rodents, and produce brainstem tumors that recapitulate the infiltrative growth of brainstem gliomas in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rintaro Hashizume
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0520, USA
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25
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Costa PM, Cardoso AL, Pereira de Almeida LF, Bruce JN, Canoll P, Pedroso de Lima MC. PDGF-B-mediated downregulation of miR-21: new insights into PDGF signaling in glioblastoma. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 21:5118-30. [PMID: 22922228 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly heterogeneous type of tumor characterized by genomic and signaling abnormalities affecting pathways involved in control of cell fate, including tumor-suppressor- and growth factor-regulated pathways. An aberrant miRNA expression has been observed in GBM, being associated with impaired cellular functions resulting in malignant transformation, proliferation and invasion. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGF-B), a potent angiogenic growth factor involved in GBM development and progression, promotes downregulation of pro-oncogenic (miR-21) and anti-oncogenic (miR-128) miRNAs, as well as upregulation/downregulation of several miRNAs involved in GBM pathology. Retrovirally mediated overexpression of PDGF-B in U87 human GBM cells or their prolonged exposure, as well as that of F98 rat glioma cells to this ligand, resulted in decreased miR-21 and miR-128 levels, which was associated with increased cell proliferation. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated PDGF-B silencing led to increased levels of miR-21 and miR-128, while miRNA modulation through overexpression of miR-21 did not alter the levels of PDGF-B. Finally, we demonstrate that modulation of tumor suppressors PTEN and p53 in U87 cells does not affect the decrease in miR-21 levels associated with PDGF-B overexpression. Overall, our findings suggest that, besides its role in inducing GBM tumorigenesis, PDGF-B may enhance tumor proliferation by modulating the expression of oncomiRs and tumor suppressor miRNAs in U87 human GBM cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro M Costa
- CNC—Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3004-517, Portugal
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26
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Ellis JA, Castelli M, Bruce JN, Canoll P, Ogden AT. Retroviral delivery of platelet-derived growth factor to spinal cord progenitor cells drives the formation of intramedullary gliomas. Neurosurgery 2012; 70:198-204; discussion 204. [PMID: 21760556 DOI: 10.1227/neu.0b013e31822ce963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND High-grade gliomas of the spinal cord are poorly understood tumors that are very commonly associated with bad outcomes. The transforming effects of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on spinal cord glial progenitor cells may play an important role in the development of these tumors. OBJECTIVE To investigate the possible tumor-initiating effects of PDGF overexpression in the spinal cord, we delivered a PDGF retrovirus directly into the substance of the spinal cord. METHODS The spinal cords of wild-type adult rats were surgically exposed and injected with 10⁶ colony-forming units of a green fluorescent protein-tagged, PDGF-expressing retrovirus. A control virus was injected to assess the cell types that become infected during retroviral delivery to the spinal cord. RESULTS It was observed that PDGF overexpression in the spinal cord causes morbidity from high-grade intramedullary glioma formation between 27 and 49 days after PDGF retrovirus injection. Retroviral transduction was highly efficient with 100% of injected animals displaying the tumor phenotype. The tumors produced were highly proliferative, were locally invasive, and displayed the immunophenotype of virus-targeted glial progenitor cells (Olig2+PDGFR+NG2+GFAP-). CONCLUSION PDGF is capable of driving glial progenitor cells within the adult spinal cord to form high-grade gliomas. Further investigation of PDGF signaling in the spinal cord is needed to better understand and treat these devastating tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Ellis
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA.
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27
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Lee DY, Gianino SM, Gutmann DH. Innate neural stem cell heterogeneity determines the patterning of glioma formation in children. Cancer Cell 2012; 22:131-8. [PMID: 22789544 PMCID: PMC3396885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.05.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 04/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The concept that gliomas comprise a heterogeneous group of diseases distinguished by their developmental origin raises the intriguing possibility that neural stem cells (NSCs) from different germinal zones have differential capacities to respond to glioma-causing genetic changes. We demonstrate that lateral ventricle subventricular zone NSCs are molecularly and functionally distinct from those of the third ventricle. Consistent with a unique origin for pediatric low-grade glioma, third ventricle, but not lateral ventricle, NSCs hyperproliferate in response to mutations characteristic of childhood glioma. Finally, we demonstrate that pediatric optic gliomas in Nf1 genetically engineered mice arise from the third ventricle. Collectively, these observations establish the importance of innate brain region NSC heterogeneity in the patterning of gliomagenesis in children and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Yong Lee
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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28
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Aoki Y, Hashizume R, Ozawa T, Banerjee A, Prados M, James CD, Gupta N. An experimental xenograft mouse model of diffuse pontine glioma designed for therapeutic testing. J Neurooncol 2012; 108:29-35. [PMID: 22231932 PMCID: PMC3841009 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-011-0796-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/30/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The prognosis for diffuse infiltrating pontine gliomas (DIPG) remains extremely poor, with the majority of patients surviving less than 2 years. Here, we have adapted standard xenograft techniques to study glioma growth in the mouse brainstem, and have utilized the mouse model for studying a relevant therapeutic for treating DIPGs. bioluminescence imaging monitoring revealed a progressive increase in signal following the injection of either of two tumor cell types into the brainstem. Mice with orthotopic GS2 tumors, and receiving a single 100 mg/kg dose of temozolomide showed a lengthy period of decreased tumor luminescence, with substantially increased survival relative to untreated mice (P < 0.001). A small molecule inhibitor that targets cdk4/6 was used to test AM-38 brainstem xenograft response to treatment. Drug treatment resulted in delayed tumor growth, and significantly extended survival. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of using an orthotopic brainstem tumor model in athymic mice, and for application to testing therapeutic agents in treating DIPG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Aoki
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Rm M779, San Francisco, CA 94143-0112, USA
| | - Rintaro Hashizume
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Rm M779, San Francisco, CA 94143-0112, USA
| | - Tomoko Ozawa
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Rm M779, San Francisco, CA 94143-0112, USA
| | - Anu Banerjee
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Michael Prados
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Rm M779, San Francisco, CA 94143-0112, USA
| | - C. David James
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Rm M779, San Francisco, CA 94143-0112, USA
| | - Nalin Gupta
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Brain Tumor Research Center, University of California San Francisco, 505 Parnassus Ave., Rm M779, San Francisco, CA 94143-0112, USA. Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Wu Q, Wang X. Neuronal stem cells in the central nervous system and in human diseases. Protein Cell 2012; 3:262-70. [PMID: 22528753 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-012-2930-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The process of cortical expansion in the central nervous system is a key step of mammalian brain development to ensure its physiological function. Radial glial (RG) cells are a glial cell type contributing to this progress as intermediate neural progenitor cells responsible for an increase in the number of cortical neurons. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of RG cells during neurogenesis and provide further information on the mechanisms of neurodevelopmental diseases and stem cell-related brain tumorigenesis. Knowledge of neuronal stem cell and relative diseases will bridge benchmark research through translational studies to clinical therapeutic treatments of these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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30
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Abstract
Glial tumors have demonstrated abilities to sustain growth via recruitment of glial progenitor cells (GPCs), which is believed to be driven by chemotactic cues. Previous studies have illustrated that mouse GPCs of different genetic backgrounds are able to replicate the dispersion pattern seen in the human disease. How GPCs with genetic backgrounds transformed by tumor paracrine signaling respond to extracellular cues via migration is largely unexplored, and remains a limiting factor in utilizing GPCs as therapeutic targets. In this study, we utilized a microfluidic device to examine the chemotaxis of three genetically-altered mouse GPC populations towards tumor conditioned media, as well as towards three growth factors known to initiate the chemotaxis of cells excised from glial tumors: Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF), Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-BB (PDGF-BB), and Transforming Growth Factor-α (TGF-α). Our results illustrate that GPC types studied exhibited chemoattraction and chemorepulsion by different concentrations of the same ligand, as well as enhanced migration in the presence of ultra-low ligand concentrations within environments of high concentration gradient. These findings contribute towards our understanding of the causative and supportive roles that GPCs play in tumor growth and reoccurrence, and also point to GPCs as potential therapeutic targets for glioma treatment.
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31
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Puget S, Philippe C, Bax DA, Job B, Varlet P, Junier MP, Andreiuolo F, Carvalho D, Reis R, Guerrini-Rousseau L, Roujeau T, Dessen P, Richon C, Lazar V, Le Teuff G, Sainte-Rose C, Geoerger B, Vassal G, Jones C, Grill J. Mesenchymal transition and PDGFRA amplification/mutation are key distinct oncogenic events in pediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas. PLoS One 2012; 7:e30313. [PMID: 22389665 PMCID: PMC3289615 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 12/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) is one of the most frequent malignant pediatric brain tumor and its prognosis is universaly fatal. No significant improvement has been made in last thirty years over the standard treatment with radiotherapy. To address the paucity of understanding of DIPGs, we have carried out integrated molecular profiling of a large series of samples obtained with stereotactic biopsy at diagnosis. While chromosomal imbalances did not distinguish DIPG and supratentorial tumors on CGHarrays, gene expression profiling revealed clear differences between them, with brainstem gliomas resembling midline/thalamic tumours, indicating a closely-related origin. Two distinct subgroups of DIPG were identified. The first subgroup displayed mesenchymal and pro-angiogenic characteristics, with stem cell markers enrichment consistent with the possibility to grow tumor stem cells from these biopsies. The other subgroup displayed oligodendroglial features, and appeared largely driven by PDGFRA, in particular through amplification and/or novel missense mutations in the extracellular domain. Patients in this later group had a significantly worse outcome with an hazard ratio for early deaths, ie before 10 months, 8 fold greater that the ones in the other subgroup (p = 0.041, Cox regression model). The worse outcome of patients with the oligodendroglial type of tumors was confirmed on a series of 55 paraffin-embedded biopsy samples at diagnosis (median OS of 7.73 versus 12.37 months, p = 0.045, log-rank test). Two distinct transcriptional subclasses of DIPG with specific genomic alterations can be defined at diagnosis by oligodendroglial differentiation or mesenchymal transition, respectively. Classifying these tumors by signal transduction pathway activation and by mutation in pathway member genes may be particularily valuable for the development of targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Puget
- Department of Neurosurgery, Necker-Sick Children Hospital, University Paris V Descartes, Paris, France
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Cathy Philippe
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Dorine A. Bax
- Section of Pediatric Oncology, The Institute of Cancer Research/Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Bastien Job
- Formation de Recherche en Evolution 2939 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Integrated Research Cancer Institute in Villejuif, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Pascale Varlet
- Team Glial Plasticity, Unite Mixte de Recherche 894 de l'Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Medicale and Department of Neuropathology, Sainte-Anne Hospital, University Paris V Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Junier
- Team Glial Plasticity, Unite Mixte de Recherche 894 de l'Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Medicale and Department of Neuropathology, Sainte-Anne Hospital, University Paris V Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Felipe Andreiuolo
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Dina Carvalho
- Section of Pediatric Oncology, The Institute of Cancer Research/Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University Do Minho, Braga, Portugal
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Reis
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University Do Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Lea Guerrini-Rousseau
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Thomas Roujeau
- Department of Neurosurgery, Necker-Sick Children Hospital, University Paris V Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Dessen
- Formation de Recherche en Evolution 2939 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Integrated Research Cancer Institute in Villejuif, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Catherine Richon
- Functional Genomics Unit, Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Vladimir Lazar
- Functional Genomics Unit, Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Gwenael Le Teuff
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Christian Sainte-Rose
- Department of Neurosurgery, Necker-Sick Children Hospital, University Paris V Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Birgit Geoerger
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Oncology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Gilles Vassal
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | - Chris Jones
- Section of Pediatric Oncology, The Institute of Cancer Research/Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Jacques Grill
- Unite Mixte de Recherche 8203 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique «Vectorology and Anticancer Therapeutics», Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Oncology, Gustave Roussy Cancer Institute, University Paris XI, Villejuif, France
- * E-mail:
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Platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) expression in primary spinal cord gliomas. J Neurooncol 2011; 106:235-42. [PMID: 21789698 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-011-0666-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/06/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Abnormal signaling through the platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) has been proposed as a possible mechanism of spinal cord glioma initiation and progression. However, the extent of PDGFR expression in human spinal cord gliomas remains unknown. In this study we perform immunohistochemical analysis of PDGFRα expression in a series of 33 primary intramedullary spinal cord gliomas of different types and grades. PDGFRα was seen to be expressed in a significant subset of these tumors across all major glioma types including ependymoma, oligodendroglioma, pilocytic astrocytoma, astrocytoma, and glioblastoma. These results support the hypothesis that growth factor signaling through the PDGFR may be important for the development of at least a subset of human spinal cord gliomas. Further studies investigating the prognostic significance of PDGFR expression as well as the role of PDGF signaling on the development of intramedullary spinal cord gliomas are warranted.
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Bohman LE, Swanson KR, Moore JL, Rockne R, Mandigo C, Hankinson T, Assanah M, Canoll P, Bruce JN. Magnetic resonance imaging characteristics of glioblastoma multiforme: implications for understanding glioma ontogeny. Neurosurgery 2011; 67:1319-27; discussion 1327-8. [PMID: 20871424 DOI: 10.1227/neu.0b013e3181f556ab] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Identifying the origin of gliomas carries important implications for advancing the treatment of these recalcitrant tumors. Recent research promotes the hypothesis of a subventricular zone (SVZ) origin for the stemlike gliomagenic cells identified within human glioma specimens. However, conflicting evidence suggests that SVZ-like cells are not uniquely gliomagenic but this capacity may be shared by cycling progenitors distributed throughout the subcortical white matter (SCWM). OBJECTIVE To review radiological evidence in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) patients to provide insight into the question of glioma ontogeny. METHODS We explored whether GBMs at first diagnosis demonstrated a pattern of anatomic distribution consistent with origin at the SVZ through retrospective analysis of preoperative contrast-enhanced T1-weighted magnetic resonance images in 63 patients. We then examined the relationship of tumor volume, point of origin, and proximity to the ventricles using a computer model of glioma growth. RESULTS Fewer than half of the GBMs analyzed had contrast-enhancing portions that contacted the ventricle on preoperative imaging. A strong correlation was found between tumor volume and the distance between the contrast-enhancing edge of the tumor and the ventricle, demonstrating that tumors abutting the ventricle are significantly larger than those that do not. The lesions simulated by the computer model validated our assumption that tumors that are radiographically distant from the ventricles are unlikely to have originated in the SVZ and supported our hypothesis that as they grow, the edges of all tumors will near the ventricles, regardless of their point of origin. CONCLUSION This work offers further support for the hypothesis that the origins of GBMs are at sites distributed throughout the white matter and are not limited to the region of the SVZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif-Erik Bohman
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA
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Hedgehog-responsive candidate cell of origin for diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:4453-8. [PMID: 21368213 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1101657108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs) are highly aggressive tumors of childhood that are almost universally fatal. Our understanding of this devastating cancer is limited by a dearth of available tissue for study and by the lack of a faithful animal model. Intriguingly, DIPGs are restricted to the ventral pons and occur during a narrow window of middle childhood, suggesting dysregulation of a postnatal neurodevelopmental process. Here, we report the identification of a previously undescribed population of immunophenotypic neural precursor cells in the human and murine brainstem whose temporal and spatial distributions correlate closely with the incidence of DIPG and highlight a candidate cell of origin. Using early postmortem DIPG tumor tissue, we have established in vitro and xenograft models and find that the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway implicated in many developmental and oncogenic processes is active in DIPG tumor cells. Modulation of Hh pathway activity has functional consequences for DIPG self-renewal capacity in neurosphere culture. The Hh pathway also appears to be active in normal ventral pontine precursor-like cells of the mouse, and unregulated pathway activity results in hypertrophy of the ventral pons. Together, these findings provide a foundation for understanding the cellular and molecular origins of DIPG, and suggest that the Hh pathway represents a potential therapeutic target in this devastating pediatric tumor.
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35
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Siebzehnrubl FA, Reynolds BA, Vescovi A, Steindler DA, Deleyrolle LP. The origins of glioma: E Pluribus Unum? Glia 2011; 59:1135-47. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.21143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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36
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Torisu R, Suzuki SO, Masui K, Yoshimoto K, Mizoguchi M, Hashizume M, Canoll P, Goldman JE, Sasaki T, Iwaki T. Persistent roles of signal transduction of platelet-derived growth factor B in genesis, growth, and anaplastic transformation of gliomas in an in-vivo serial transplantation model. Brain Tumor Pathol 2011; 28:33-42. [PMID: 21210235 DOI: 10.1007/s10014-010-0006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that retrovirally transduced platelet-derived growth factor-B (PDGFB) in glial progenitors of the rat cerebral white matter, subventricular zone, or brain stem induced malignant brain tumors closely resembling human glioblastoma (GBM). While human GBMs may progress over the period of several months to a few years, prospective, long-term in-vivo observation of histological changes of the tumor tissues is not feasible in these models, because the animals undergo rapid tumor progression and mortality within approximately 1 month. We thus performed successive, long-term in-vivo transplantation of the PDGFB-induced tumor cells into the rat cerebrum. Primary retroviral transduction of PDGFB in the glial progenitors of the rat basal ganglia induced malignant glioma resembling human GBM or anaplastic oligodendroglioma (AOL) consisting of relatively monomorphous tumor cells expressing markers for the oligodendrocyte lineage. In the course of long-term successive transplantation, tumor cells presented pleomorphism as well as focal GFAP expression. This suggests that secondary chromosomal aberration and dysregulation of gene expression following accelerated cell cycle by PDGFB stimulation would induce morphological and immunophenotypic changes in tumor cells. Furthermore, while the primary tumors contained only a minor fraction of proviral GFP-expressing or hemagglutinin-expressing cells, most tumor cells came to express these proviral genes in the course of serial transplantation suggesting a persistent role of PDGFB-expressing cells in maintenance and growth of the tumors. This model would be useful for investigation of the long-term effects of PDGFB stimulation in glioma tissues on anaplastic evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rina Torisu
- Department of Neuropathology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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Caretti V, Zondervan I, Meijer DH, Idema S, Vos W, Hamans B, Bugiani M, Hulleman E, Wesseling P, Vandertop WP, Noske DP, Kaspers G, Molthoff CFM, Wurdinger T. Monitoring of tumor growth and post-irradiation recurrence in a diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma mouse model. Brain Pathol 2010; 21:441-51. [PMID: 21159008 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2010.00468.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) is a fatal malignancy because of its diffuse infiltrative growth pattern. Translational research suffers from the lack of a representative DIPG animal model. Hence, human E98 glioma cells were stereotactically injected into the pons of nude mice. The E98 DIPG tumors presented a strikingly similar histhopathology to autopsy material of a DIPG patient, including diffuse and perivascular growth, brainstem- and supratentorial invasiveness and leptomeningeal growth. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was effectively employed to image the E98 DIPG tumor. [(18) F] 3'-deoxy-3'-[(18) F]fluorothymidine (FLT) positron emission tomography (PET) imaging was applied to assess the subcutaneous (s.c.) E98 tumor proliferation status but no orthotopic DIPG activity could be visualized. Next, E98 cells were cultured in vitro and engineered to express firefly luciferase and mCherry (E98-Fluc-mCherry). These cultured E98-Fluc-mCherry cells developed focal pontine glioma when injected into the pons directly. However, the diffuse E98 DIPG infiltrative phenotype was restored when cells were injected into the pons immediately after an intermediate s.c. passage. The diffuse E98-Fluc-mCherry model was subsequently used to test escalating doses of irradiation, applying the bioluminescent Fluc signal to monitor tumor recurrence over time. Altogether, we here describe an accurate DIPG mouse model that can be of clinical relevance for testing experimental therapeutics in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viola Caretti
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam
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Becher OJ, Holland EC. Evidence for and against regional differences in neural stem and progenitor cells of the CNS. Genes Dev 2010; 24:2233-8. [PMID: 20952533 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1988010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem and progenitor cells (NSCs) give rise to the cellular diversity of the CNS. There is evidence both for and against differences in these cells based on the region of the brain in which they reside. Primary brain tumors mimic many aspects of NSC behavior. Recent data suggest that some of the variability in glioma biology may be, in part, a reflection of regional differences in the NSCs from which they arise. In this issue of Genes & Development, Lee and colleagues (pp. 2317-2329) examine how NF1 regulates NSC proliferation and glial differentiation in the brainstem and cortex of the postnatal mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren J Becher
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
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