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Torres-Morales C, Cansino S. Brain representations of space and time in episodic memory: A systematic review and meta-analysis. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2024; 24:1-18. [PMID: 38030912 PMCID: PMC10827973 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-023-01140-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
All experiences preserved within episodic memory contain information on the space and time of events. The hippocampus is the main brain region involved in processing spatial and temporal information for incorporation within episodic memory representations. However, the other brain regions involved in the encoding and retrieval of spatial and temporal information within episodic memory are unclear, because a systematic review of related studies is lacking and the findings are scattered. The present study was designed to integrate the results of functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography studies by means of a systematic review and meta-analysis to provide converging evidence. In particular, we focused on identifying the brain regions involved in the retrieval of spatial and temporal information. We identified a spatial retrieval network consisting of the inferior temporal gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, superior parietal lobule, angular gyrus, and precuneus. Temporal context retrieval was supported by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Thus, the retrieval of spatial and temporal information is supported by different brain regions, highlighting their different natures within episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Torres-Morales
- Laboratory of NeuroCognition, Faculty of Psychology, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Selene Cansino
- Laboratory of NeuroCognition, Faculty of Psychology, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico.
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2
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Zheng Q, Ba X, Wang Q, Cheng J, Nan J, He T. Functional differentiation of the dorsal striatum: a coordinate-based neuroimaging meta-analysis. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2023; 13:471-488. [PMID: 36620169 PMCID: PMC9816733 DOI: 10.21037/qims-22-133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Background The dorsal striatum, a nucleus in the basal ganglia, plays a key role in the execution of cognitive functions in the human brain. Recent studies have focused on how the dorsal striatum participates in a single cognitive function, whereas the specific roles of the caudate and putamen in performing multiple cognitive functions remain unclear. In this paper we conducted a meta-analysis of the relevant neuroimaging literature to understand the roles of subregions of the dorsal striatum in performing different functions. Methods PubMed, Web of Science, and BrainMap Functional Database were searched to find original functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies conducted on healthy adults under reward, memory, emotion, and decision-making tasks, and relevant screening criteria were formulated. Single task activation, contrast activation, and conjunction activation analyses were performed using the activation likelihood estimation (ALE) method for the coordinate-based meta-analysis to evaluate the differences and linkages. Results In all, 112 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Analysis revealed that, of the 4 single activation tasks, reward, memory, and emotion tasks all activated the putamen more, whereas decision-making tasks activated the caudate body. Contrast analysis showed that the caudate body played an important role in the 2 cooperative activation tasks, but conjunction activation results found that more peaks appeared in the caudate head. Discussion Different subregions of the caudate and putamen assume different roles in processing complex cognitive behaviors. Functional division of the dorsal striatum identified specific roles of 15 different subregions, reflecting differences and connections between the different subregions in performing different cognitive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zheng
- College of Software Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiaojuan Ba
- College of Software Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- College of Software Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Junying Cheng
- Department of Magnetic Resonance, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jiaofen Nan
- College of Software Engineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Taigang He
- Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton Hospital and Imperial College London, London, UK;,Cardiovascular Sciences Research Centre, St George’s, University of London, London, UK
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3
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Zhu Q, Wang Y, Zhuo C, Xu Q, Yao Y, Liu Z, Li Y, Sun Z, Wang J, Lv M, Wu Q, Wang D. Classification of Alzheimer’s Disease Based on Abnormal Hippocampal Functional Connectivity and Machine Learning. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:754334. [PMID: 35273489 PMCID: PMC8902140 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.754334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive deterioration of memory and cognition. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has been implicated as a prodromal phase of AD. Although abnormal functional connectivity (FC) has been demonstrated in AD and MCI, the clinical differentiation of AD, MCI, and normal aging remains difficult, and the distinction between MCI and normal aging is especially problematic. We hypothesized that FC between the hippocampus and other brain structures is altered in AD and MCI, and that measurement of abnormal FC could have diagnostic utility for the classification of different AD stages. Methods Elderly adults aged 60–85 years were assigned to AD, MCI, or normal control (NC) groups based on clinical criteria. Functional magnetic resonance scanning was completed by 119 subjects. Five dimension reduction/classification methods were applied, using hippocampus-derived FC strengths as input features. Classification performance of the five dimensionality reduction methods was compared between AD, MCI, and NC groups. Results FCs between the hippocampus and left insula, left thalamus, cerebellum, right lingual gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, and precuneus were significantly reduced in AD and MCI. Support vector machine learning coupled with sparse principal component analysis demonstrated the best discriminative performance, yielding classification accuracies of 82.02% (AD vs. NC), 81.33% (MCI vs. NC), and 81.08% (AD vs. MCI). Conclusion Hippocampus-seed-based FCs were significantly different between AD, MCI, and NC groups. FC assessment combined with widely used machine learning methods can improve AD differential diagnosis, and may be especially useful to distinguish MCI from normal aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qixiao Zhu
- School of Information Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yonghui Wang
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Chuanjun Zhuo
- Key Laboratory of Real Time Brain Circuits Tracing (RTBNP_Lab), Tianjin Fourth Center Hospital, Tianjin Fourth Hospital Affiliated to Nankai University, Tianjin, China
- Department of Psychiatry, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Qunxing Xu
- Department of Health Management Center, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yuan Yao
- Department of Radiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhuyun Liu
- Department of Radiology, The Second People’s Hospital of Rizhao City, Rizhao, China
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Neurology, Qilu Hospital of Shangdong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zhao Sun
- Shandong Chenze AI Research Institute Co. Ltd., Jinan, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Brain Function Remodeling, Department of Neurosurgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Ming Lv
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Qiang Wu
- School of Information Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, China
- *Correspondence: Qiang Wu,
| | - Dawei Wang
- Department of Radiology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
- Institute of Brain and Brain-Inspired Science, Shandong University, Jinan, China
- Dawei Wang,
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4
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Geier KT, Buchsbaum BR, Parimoo S, Olsen RK. The role of anterior and medial dorsal thalamus in associative memory encoding and retrieval. Neuropsychologia 2020; 148:107623. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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5
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Langner R, Eickhoff SB, Bilalić M. A network view on brain regions involved in experts' object and pattern recognition: Implications for the neural mechanisms of skilled visual perception. Brain Cogn 2018; 131:74-86. [PMID: 30290974 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2018.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Skilled visual object and pattern recognition form the basis of many everyday behaviours. The game of chess has often been used as a model case for studying how long-term experience aides in perceiving objects and their spatio-functional interrelations. Earlier research revealed two brain regions, posterior middle temporal gyrus (pMTG) and collateral sulcus (CoS), to be linked to chess experts' superior object and pattern recognition, respectively. Here we elucidated the brain networks these two expertise-related regions are embedded in, employing resting-state functional connectivity analysis and meta-analytic connectivity modelling with the BrainMap database. pMTG was preferentially connected with dorsal visual stream areas and a parieto-prefrontal network for action planning, while CoS was preferentially connected with posterior medial cortex and hippocampus, linked to scene perception, perspective-taking and navigation. Functional profiling using BrainMap meta-data revealed that pMTG was linked to semantic processing as well as inhibition and attention, while CoS was linked to face and shape perception as well as passive viewing. Our findings suggest that pMTG subserves skilled object recognition by mediating the link between object identity and object affordances, while CoS subserves skilled pattern recognition by linking the position of individual objects with typical spatio-functional layouts of their environment stored in memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Langner
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany; Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-7: Brain and Behaviour), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany.
| | - Simon B Eickhoff
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany; Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-7: Brain and Behaviour), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Merim Bilalić
- Department of Psychology, University of Northumbria at Newcastle, Newcastle, England, United Kingdom; Department of Neuroradiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Grot S, Leclerc ME, Luck D. Examining the neural correlates of active and passive forms of verbal-spatial binding in working memory. Biol Psychol 2018; 136:67-75. [PMID: 29802860 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We designed an fMRI study to pinpoint the neural correlates of active and passive binding in working memory. Participants were instructed to memorize three words and three spatial locations. In the passive binding condition, words and spatial locations were directly presented as bound. Conversely, in the active binding condition, words and spatial locations were presented as separated, and participants were directed to intentionally create associations between them. Our results showed that participants performed better on passive binding relative to active binding. FMRI analysis revealed that both binding conditions induced greater activity within the hippocampus. Additionally, our analyses divulged regions specifically engaged in passive and active binding. Altogether, these data allow us to propose the hippocampus as a central candidate for working memory binding. When needed, a frontal-parietal network can contribute to the rearrangement of information. These findings may inform theories of working memory binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Grot
- Centre de recherche, Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Marie-Eve Leclerc
- Centre de recherche, Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - David Luck
- Centre de recherche, Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal, Montreal, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada.
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Glucocorticoid Administration Improves Aberrant Fear-Processing Networks in Spider Phobia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:485-494. [PMID: 27644128 PMCID: PMC5399241 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids reduce phobic fear in patients with anxiety disorders. Previous studies have shown that fear-related activation of the amygdala can be mediated through the visual cortical pathway, which includes the fusiform gyrus, or through other pathways. However, it is not clear which of the pathways that activate the amygdala is responsible for the pathophysiology of a specific phobia and how glucocorticoid treatment alleviates fear processing in these neural networks. We recorded the brain activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging in patients with spider phobia, who received either 20 mg of cortisol or a placebo while viewing pictures of spiders. We also tested healthy participants who did not receive any medication during the same task. We performed dynamic causal modelling (DCM), a connectivity analysis, to examine the effects of cortisol on the networks involved in processing fear and to examine if there was an association between these networks and the symptoms of the phobia. Cortisol administration suppressed the phobic stimuli-related amygdala activity to levels comparable to the healthy participants and reduced subjective phobic fear. The DCM analysis revealed that cortisol administration suppressed the aberrant inputs into the amygdala that did not originate from the visual cortical pathway, but rather from a fast subcortical pathway mediated by the pulvinar nucleus, and suppressed the interactions between the amygdala and fusiform gyrus. This network changes were distinguishable from healthy participants and considered the residual changes under cortisol administration. We also found that the strengths of the aberrant inputs into the amygdala were positively correlated with the severity of spider phobia. This study demonstrates that patients with spider phobia show an aberrant functional connectivity of the amygdala when they are exposed to phobia-related stimuli and that cortisol administration can alleviate this fear-specific neural connectivity.
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8
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Oyedotun OK, Khashman A. Banknote recognition: investigating processing and cognition framework using competitive neural network. Cogn Neurodyn 2016; 11:67-79. [PMID: 28174613 DOI: 10.1007/s11571-016-9404-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are apt at recognizing patterns and discovering even abstract features which are sometimes embedded therein. Our ability to use the banknotes in circulation for business transactions lies in the effortlessness with which we can recognize the different banknote denominations after seeing them over a period of time. More significant is that we can usually recognize these banknote denominations irrespective of what parts of the banknotes are exposed to us visually. Furthermore, our recognition ability is largely unaffected even when these banknotes are partially occluded. In a similar analogy, the robustness of intelligent systems to perform the task of banknote recognition should not collapse under some minimum level of partial occlusion. Artificial neural networks are intelligent systems which from inception have taken many important cues related to structure and learning rules from the human nervous/cognition processing system. Likewise, it has been shown that advances in artificial neural network simulations can help us understand the human nervous/cognition system even furthermore. In this paper, we investigate three cognition hypothetical frameworks to vision-based recognition of banknote denominations using competitive neural networks. In order to make the task more challenging and stress-test the investigated hypotheses, we also consider the recognition of occluded banknotes. The implemented hypothetical systems are tasked to perform fast recognition of banknotes with up to 75 % occlusion. The investigated hypothetical systems are trained on Nigeria's Naira banknotes and several experiments are performed to demonstrate the findings presented within this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oyebade K Oyedotun
- European Centre for Research and Academic Affairs (ECRAA), Mersin-10, Northern Cyprus, Lefkosa, Turkey
| | - Adnan Khashman
- European Centre for Research and Academic Affairs (ECRAA), Mersin-10, Northern Cyprus, Lefkosa, Turkey
- University of Kyrenia, Mersin-10, Girne, Turkey
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9
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Blast explosions are the most frequent mechanism of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in recent wars, but little is known about their long-term effects. METHODS Functional connectivity (FC) was measured in 17 veterans an average of 5.46 years after their most serious blast related TBI, and in 15 demographically similar veterans without TBI or blast exposure. Subcortical FC was measured in bilateral caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus. The default mode and fronto-parietal networks were also investigated. RESULTS In subcortical regions, between-groups t tests revealed altered FC from the right putamen and right globus pallidus. However, following analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with age, depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale), and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom (PTSD Checklist - Civilian version) measures, significant findings remained only for the right globus pallidus with anticorrelation in bilateral temporal occipital fusiform cortex, occipital fusiform gyrus, lingual gyrus, and cerebellum, as well as the right occipital pole. No group differences were found for the default mode network. Although reduced FC was found in the fronto-parietal network in the TBI group, between-group differences were nonsignificant after the ANCOVA. CONCLUSIONS FC of the globus pallidus is altered years after exposure to blast related TBI. Future studies are necessary to explore the trajectory of changes in FC in subcortical regions after blast TBI, the effects of isolated versus repetitive blast-related TBI, and the relation to long-term outcomes in veterans. (JINS, 2016, 22, 631-642).
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10
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Rifkin-Graboi A, Kong L, Sim LW, Sanmugam S, Broekman BFP, Chen H, Wong E, Kwek K, Saw SM, Chong YS, Gluckman PD, Fortier MV, Pederson D, Meaney MJ, Qiu A. Maternal sensitivity, infant limbic structure volume and functional connectivity: a preliminary study. Transl Psychiatry 2015; 5:e668. [PMID: 26506054 PMCID: PMC4930120 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms underlying the profound parental effects on cognitive, emotional and social development in humans remain poorly understood. Studies with nonhuman models suggest variations in parental care affect the limbic system, influential to learning, autobiography and emotional regulation. In some research, nonoptimal care relates to decreases in neurogenesis, although other work suggests early-postnatal social adversity accelerates the maturation of limbic structures associated with emotional learning. We explored whether maternal sensitivity predicts human limbic system development and functional connectivity patterns in a small sample of human infants. When infants were 6 months of age, 20 mother-infant dyads attended a laboratory-based observational session and the infants underwent neuroimaging at the same age. After considering age at imaging, household income and postnatal maternal anxiety, regression analyses demonstrated significant indirect associations between maternal sensitivity and bilateral hippocampal volume at six months, with the majority of associations between sensitivity and the amygdala demonstrating similar indirect, but not significant results. Moreover, functional analyses revealed direct associations between maternal sensitivity and connectivity between the hippocampus and areas important for emotional regulation and socio-emotional functioning. Sensitivity additionally predicted indirect associations between limbic structures and regions related to autobiographical memory. Our volumetric results are consistent with research indicating accelerated limbic development in response to early social adversity, and in combination with our functional results, if replicated in a larger sample, may suggest that subtle, but important, variations in maternal care influence neuroanatomical trajectories important to future cognitive and emotional functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rifkin-Graboi
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore,Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore. E-mail:
| | - L Kong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Imaging Research Center, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - L W Sim
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore
| | - S Sanmugam
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore
| | - B F P Broekman
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore,Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - H Chen
- Department of Psychological Medicine, KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Duke-National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - E Wong
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore
| | - K Kwek
- Department of Maternal Fetal Medicine, KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - S-M Saw
- Department of Epidemiology, Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Y-S Chong
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore,Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - P D Gluckman
- Human Development, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore,Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - M V Fortier
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging, KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - D Pederson
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - M J Meaney
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore,Department of Neurosciences, Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,Sackler Program for Epigenetics and Psychobiology, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - A Qiu
- Integrative Neuroscience Program, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Singapore,Department of Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Imaging Research Center, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore,Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Block EA #03-12, Singapore 117576, Singapore. E-mail:
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11
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Lou W, Shi L, Wang D, Tam CWC, Chu WCW, Mok VCT, Cheng ST, Lam LCW. Decreased activity with increased background network efficiency in amnestic MCI during a visuospatial working memory task. Hum Brain Mapp 2015; 36:3387-403. [PMID: 26032982 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 05/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated the working memory impairment in patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). However, the neurophysiological basis of the working memory deficit in aMCI is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to explore the abnormal activity during encoding and recognition procedures, as well as the reorganization of the background network maintaining the working memory state in aMCI. Using event-related fMRI during a visuospatial working memory task with three recognition difficulty levels, the task-related activations and network efficiency of the background network in 17 aMCI patients and 19 matched controls were investigated. Compared with cognitively healthy controls, patients with aMCI showed significantly decreased activity in the frontal and visual cortices during the encoding phase, while during the recognition phase, decreased activity was detected in the frontal, parietal, and visual regions. In addition, increased local efficiency was also observed in the background network of patients with aMCI. The results suggest patients with aMCI showed impaired encoding and recognition functions during the visuospatial working memory task, and may pay more effort to maintain the cognitive state. This study extends our understanding of the impaired working memory function in aMCI and provides a new perspective to investigate the compensatory mechanism in aMCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wutao Lou
- Department of Imaging and Interventional Radiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Research Center for Medical Image Computing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Lin Shi
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Chow Yuk Ho Center of Innovative Technology for Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Defeng Wang
- Department of Imaging and Interventional Radiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Research Center for Medical Image Computing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Department of Biomedical Engineering and Shun Hing Institute of Advanced Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Shenzhen Research Institute, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Cindy W C Tam
- Department of Psychiatry, North District Hospital, Hong Kong
| | - Winnie C W Chu
- Department of Imaging and Interventional Radiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Vincent C T Mok
- Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Sheung-Tak Cheng
- Department of Health and Physical Education, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong.,Department of Clinical Psychology, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norfolk, United Kingdom
| | - Linda C W Lam
- Department of Psychiatry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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12
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Tu S, Miller L, Piguet O, Hornberger M. Accelerated forgetting of contextual details due to focal medio-dorsal thalamic lesion. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:320. [PMID: 25309371 PMCID: PMC4163931 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Effects of thalamic nuclei damage and related white matter tracts on memory performance are still debated. This is particularly evident for the medio-dorsal thalamus which has been less clear in predicting amnesia than anterior thalamus changes. The current study addresses this issue by assessing 7 thalamic stroke patients with consistent unilateral lesions focal to the left medio-dorsal nuclei for immediate and delayed memory performance on standard visual and verbal tests of anterograde memory, and over the long-term (>24 h) on an object-location associative memory task. Thalamic patients showed selective impairment to delayed recall, but intact recognition memory. Patients also showed accelerated forgetting of contextual details after a 24 h delay, compared to controls. Importantly, the mammillothalamic tract was intact in all patients, which suggests a role for the medio-dorsal nuclei in recall and early consolidation memory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sicong Tu
- Neuroscience Research Australia, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW, Australia ; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Laurie Miller
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders Sydney, NSW, Australia ; Central Clinical School, Neuropsychology Unit, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, University of Sydney Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Olivier Piguet
- Neuroscience Research Australia, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW, Australia ; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Michael Hornberger
- Neuroscience Research Australia, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW, Australia ; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders Sydney, NSW, Australia ; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK
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13
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Pergola G, Suchan B. Associative learning beyond the medial temporal lobe: many actors on the memory stage. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:162. [PMID: 24312029 PMCID: PMC3832901 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have established a model that includes the medial temporal lobe, and particularly the hippocampus, as a critical node for episodic memory. Neuroimaging and clinical studies have shown the involvement of additional cortical and subcortical regions. Among these areas, the thalamus, the retrosplenial cortex, and the prefrontal cortices have been consistently related to episodic memory performance. This article provides evidences that these areas are in different forms and degrees critical for human memory function rather than playing only an ancillary role. First we briefly summarize the functional architecture of the medial temporal lobe with respect to recognition memory and recall. We then focus on the clinical and neuroimaging evidence available on thalamo-prefrontal and thalamo-retrosplenial networks. The role of these networks in episodic memory has been considered secondary, partly because disruption of these areas does not always lead to severe impairments; to account for this evidence, we discuss methodological issues related to the investigation of these regions. We propose that these networks contribute differently to recognition memory and recall, and also that the memory stage of their contribution shows specificity to encoding or retrieval in recall tasks. We note that the same mechanisms may be in force when humans perform non-episodic tasks, e.g., semantic retrieval and mental time travel. Functional disturbance of these networks is related to cognitive impairments not only in neurological disorders, but also in psychiatric medical conditions, such as schizophrenia. Finally we discuss possible mechanisms for the contribution of these areas to memory, including regulation of oscillatory rhythms and long-term potentiation. We conclude that integrity of the thalamo-frontal and the thalamo-retrosplenial networks is necessary for the manifold features of episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Pergola
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari ‘Aldo Moro’, Bari, Italy
- Neuroscience Area, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Boris Suchan
- Department of Neuropsychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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The role of the thalamic nuclei in recognition memory accompanied by recall during encoding and retrieval: An fMRI study. Neuroimage 2013; 74:195-208. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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15
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16
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Manelis A, Reder LM. Procedural learning and associative memory mechanisms contribute to contextual cueing: Evidence from fMRI and eye-tracking. Learn Mem 2012; 19:527-34. [PMID: 23073642 DOI: 10.1101/lm.025973.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Using a combination of eye tracking and fMRI in a contextual cueing task, we explored the mechanisms underlying the facilitation of visual search for repeated spatial configurations. When configurations of distractors were repeated, greater activation in the right hippocampus corresponded to greater reductions in the number of saccades to locate the target. A psychophysiological interactions analysis for repeated configurations revealed that a strong functional connectivity between this area in the right hippocampus and the left superior parietal lobule early in learning was significantly reduced toward the end of the task. Practice related changes (which we call "procedural learning") in activation in temporo-occipital and parietal brain regions depended on whether or not spatial context was repeated. We conclude that context repetition facilitates visual search through chunk formation that reduces the number of effective distractors that have to be processed during the search. Context repetition influences procedural learning in a way that allows for continuous and effective chunk updating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Manelis
- Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA.
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17
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Pergola G, Güntürkün O, Koch B, Schwarz M, Daum I, Suchan B. Recall deficits in stroke patients with thalamic lesions covary with damage to the parvocellular mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus. Neuropsychologia 2012; 50:2477-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Revised: 06/16/2012] [Accepted: 06/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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18
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Arsalidou M, Duerden EG, Taylor MJ. The centre of the brain: topographical model of motor, cognitive, affective, and somatosensory functions of the basal ganglia. Hum Brain Mapp 2012; 34:3031-54. [PMID: 22711692 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The basal ganglia have traditionally been viewed as motor processing nuclei; however, functional neuroimaging evidence has implicated these structures in more complex cognitive and affective processes that are fundamental for a range of human activities. Using quantitative meta-analysis methods we assessed the functional subdivisions of basal ganglia nuclei in relation to motor (body and eye movements), cognitive (working-memory and executive), affective (emotion and reward) and somatosensory functions in healthy participants. We document affective processes in the anterior parts of the caudate head with the most overlap within the left hemisphere. Cognitive processes showed the most widespread response, whereas motor processes occupied more central structures. On the basis of these demonstrated functional roles of the basal ganglia, we provide a new comprehensive topographical model of these nuclei and insight into how they are linked to a wide range of behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Arsalidou
- Diagnostic Imaging and Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada
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19
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Holzschneider K, Wolbers T, Röder B, Hötting K. Cardiovascular fitness modulates brain activation associated with spatial learning. Neuroimage 2012; 59:3003-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Hampstead BM, Stringer AY, Stilla RF, Amaraneni A, Sathian K. Where did I put that? Patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment demonstrate widespread reductions in activity during the encoding of ecologically relevant object-location associations. Neuropsychologia 2011; 49:2349-61. [PMID: 21530556 PMCID: PMC3277954 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Revised: 04/03/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Remembering the location of objects in the environment is both important in everyday life and difficult for patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI), a clinical precursor to Alzheimer's disease. To test the hypothesis that memory impairment for object location in aMCI reflects hippocampal dysfunction, we used an event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging paradigm to compare patients with aMCI and healthy elderly controls (HEC) as they encoded 90 ecologically relevant object-location associations (OLAs). Two additional OLAs, repeated a total of 45 times, served as control stimuli. Memory for these OLAs was assessed following a 1-h delay. The groups were well matched on demographics and brain volumetrics. Behaviorally, HEC remembered significantly more OLAs than did aMCI patients. Activity differences were assessed by contrasting activation for successfully encoded Novel stimuli vs. Repeated stimuli. The HEC demonstrated activity within object-related (ventral visual stream), spatial location-related (dorsal visual stream), and feature binding-related cortical regions (hippocampus and other memory-related regions) as well as in frontal cortex and associated subcortical structures. Activity in most of these regions correlated with memory test performance. Although the aMCI patients demonstrated a similar activation pattern, the HEC showed significantly greater activity within each of these regions. Memory test performance in aMCI patients, in contrast to the HEC, was correlated with activity in regions involved in sensorimotor processing. We conclude that aMCI patients demonstrate widespread cerebral dysfunction, not limited to the hippocampus, and rely on encoding-related mechanisms that differ substantially from healthy individuals.
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Nickl-Jockschat T, Kleiman A, Schulz JB, Schneider F, Laird AR, Fox PT, Eickhoff SB, Reetz K. Neuroanatomic changes and their association with cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis. Brain Struct Funct 2011; 217:115-25. [PMID: 21667303 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-011-0333-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2010] [Accepted: 05/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is an acquired syndrome characterised by cognitive decline not affecting activities of daily living. Using a quantitative meta-analytic approach, we aimed to identify consistent neuroanatomic correlates of MCI and how they are related to cognitive dysfunction. The meta-analysis enrols 22 studies, involving 917 MCI (848 amnestic MCI) patients and 809 healthy controls. Only studies investigating local changes in grey matter and reporting whole-brain results in stereotactic coordinates were included and analysed using the activation likelihood estimation approach. Probabilistic cytoarchitectonic maps were used to compare the localization of the obtained significant effects to histological areas. A correlation between the probability of grey matter changes and cognitive performance of MCI patients was performed. In MCI patients, the meta-analysis revealed three significant clusters of convergent grey matter atrophy, which were mainly situated in the bilateral amygdala and hippocampus, extending to the left medial temporal pole and thalamus, as well as in the bilateral precuneus. A sub-analysis in only amnestic MCI revealed a similar pattern. A voxel-wise analysis revealed a correlation between grey matter reduction and cognitive decline in the right hippocampus and amygdala as well as in the left thalamus. This study provides convergent evidence of a distinct neuroanatomical pattern in MCI. The correlation analysis with cognitive-mnestic decline further highlights the impact of limbic structures and the linkage with data from a functional neuroimaging database provides additional insight into underlying functions. Although different pathologies are underlying MCI, the observed neuroanatomical pattern of structural changes may reflect the common clinical denominator of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Nickl-Jockschat
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstr. 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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22
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Manelis A, Hanson C, Hanson SJ. Implicit memory for object locations depends on reactivation of encoding-related brain regions. Hum Brain Mapp 2011; 32:32-50. [PMID: 21157878 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.20992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This study explored the correspondence between implicit memory and the reactivation of encoding-related brain regions. By using a classification method, we examined whether reactivation reflects only the similarities between study and test or voxels at the reactivated regions are diagnostic of facilitation in the implicit memory task. A simple detection task served as incidental encoding of object-location pairings. A subsequent visual search task served as the indirect (implicit) test of memory. Subjects did not know that their memory would be tested. Half of the subjects were unaware that some stimuli in the search task are the same as those that had appeared during the detection task. Another group of subjects was made aware of this relationship at the onset of the visual search task. Memory performance was superior for the study-test aware, compared to study-test unaware, subjects. Brain reactivation was calculated using a conjunction analysis implemented through overlaying the neural activity at encoding and testing. The conjunction analysis revealed that implicit memory in both groups of subjects was associated with reactivation of parietal and occipital brain regions. We were able to classify study-test aware and study-test unaware subjects based on the per-voxel reactivation values representing the neural dynamics between encoding and test. The classification results indicate that neural dynamics between encoding and test accounts for the differences in implicit memory. Overall, our study demonstrates that implicit memory performance requires and depends upon reactivation of encoding-related brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Manelis
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey, USA.
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23
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Lee B, Park JY, Jung WH, Kim HS, Oh JS, Choi CH, Jang JH, Kang DH, Kwon JS. White matter neuroplastic changes in long-term trained players of the game of “Baduk”11“Baduk” is the Korean name which replaces the Japanese name “GO,” designating a traditional Far Eastern board game with two kinds of pieces (black and white stones) manipulated by two opponents. For game-play details, see Introduction. (GO): A voxel-based diffusion-tensor imaging study. Neuroimage 2010; 52:9-19. [PMID: 20394826 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2009] [Revised: 03/31/2010] [Accepted: 04/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Cantero JL, Atienza M, Gomez-Herrero G, Cruz-Vadell A, Gil-Neciga E, Rodriguez-Romero R, Garcia-Solis D. Functional integrity of thalamocortical circuits differentiates normal aging from mild cognitive impairment. Hum Brain Mapp 2010; 30:3944-57. [PMID: 19449329 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.20819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Resonance in thalamocortical networks is critically involved in sculpting oscillatory behavior in large ensembles of neocortical cells. Neocortical oscillations provide critical information about the integrity of thalamocortical circuits and functional connectivity of cortical networks, which seem to be significantly disrupted by the neuronal death and synapse loss characterizing Alzheimer's disease (AD). By applying a novel analysis methodology to overcome volume conduction effects between scalp electroencephalographic (EEG) measurements, we were able to estimate the temporal activation of EEG-alpha sources in the thalamus and parieto-occipital regions of the cortex. We found that synaptic flow underlying the lower alpha band (7.5-10 Hz) was abnormally facilitated in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) as compared to healthy elderly individuals, particularly from thalamus to cortex (approximately 38% higher). In addition, the thalamic generator of lower alpha oscillations was also abnormally activated in patients with MCI. Regarding the upper alpha subdivision (10.1-12.5 Hz), both controls and patients with MCI showed a bidirectional decrease of thalamocortical synaptic transmission, which was age-dependent only in the control group. Altogether, our results suggest that functional dynamics of thalamocortical networks differentiate individuals at high risk of developing AD from healthy elderly subjects, supporting the hypothesis that neurodegeneration mechanisms are active years before the patient is clinically diagnosed with dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose L Cantero
- Laboratory of Functional Neuroscience, Network for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), University Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain.
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Meulenbroek O, Kessels RP, de Rover M, Petersson KM, Rikkert MGO, Rijpkema M, Fernández G. Age-effects on associative object–location memory. Brain Res 2010; 1315:100-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Revised: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/05/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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26
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Rauchs G, Orban P, Schmidt C, Albouy G, Balteau E, Degueldre C, Schnackers C, Sterpenich V, Tinguely G, Luxen A, Maquet P, Peigneux P. Sleep modulates the neural substrates of both spatial and contextual memory consolidation. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2949. [PMID: 18698363 PMCID: PMC2491899 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is known that sleep reshapes the neural representations that subtend the memories acquired while navigating in a virtual environment. However, navigation is not process-pure, as manifold learning components contribute to performance, notably the spatial and contextual memory constituents. In this context, it remains unclear whether post-training sleep globally promotes consolidation of all of the memory components embedded in virtual navigation, or rather favors the development of specific representations. Here, we investigated the effect of post-training sleep on the neural substrates of the consolidation of spatial and contextual memories acquired while navigating in a complex 3D, naturalistic virtual town. Using fMRI, we mapped regional cerebral activity during various tasks designed to tap either the spatial or the contextual memory component, or both, 72 h after encoding with or without sleep deprivation during the first post-training night. Behavioral performance was not dependent upon post-training sleep deprivation, neither in a natural setting that engages both spatial and contextual memory processes nor when looking more specifically at each of these memory representations. At the neuronal level however, analyses that focused on contextual memory revealed distinct correlations between performance and neuronal activity in frontal areas associated with recollection processes after post-training sleep, and in the parahippocampal gyrus associated with familiarity processes in sleep-deprived participants. Likewise, efficient spatial memory was associated with posterior cortical activity after sleep whereas it correlated with parahippocampal/medial temporal activity after sleep deprivation. Finally, variations in place-finding efficiency in a natural setting encompassing spatial and contextual elements were associated with caudate activity after post-training sleep, suggesting the automation of navigation. These data indicate that post-training sleep modulates the neural substrates of the consolidation of both the spatial and contextual memories acquired during virtual navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Géraldine Rauchs
- Cyclotron Research Center, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Inserm-EPHE-Université de Caen Basse-Normandie, Unité de Recherche U923, GIP Cyceron, Caen, France
| | - Pierre Orban
- Cyclotron Research Center, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- Functional Neuroimaging Unit, University of Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | | | | | - Evelyne Balteau
- Cyclotron Research Center, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | | | | | | | - André Luxen
- Cyclotron Research Center, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Pierre Maquet
- Cyclotron Research Center, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Philippe Peigneux
- Cyclotron Research Center, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
- UR2NF - Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Research Unit, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
- * E-mail:
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