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Borot L, Ogden R, Bennett SJ. Prefrontal cortex activity and functional organisation in dual-task ocular pursuit is affected by concurrent upper limb movement. Sci Rep 2024; 14:9996. [PMID: 38693184 PMCID: PMC11063197 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57012-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Tracking a moving object with the eyes seems like a simple task but involves areas of prefrontal cortex (PFC) associated with attention, working memory and prediction. Increasing the demand on these processes with secondary tasks can affect eye movements and/or perceptual judgments. This is particularly evident in chronic or acute neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease or mild traumatic brain injury. Here, we combined near infrared spectroscopy and video-oculography to examine the effects of concurrent upper limb movement, which provides additional afference and efference that facilitates tracking of a moving object, in a novel dual-task pursuit protocol. We confirmed the expected effects on judgement accuracy in the primary and secondary tasks, as well as a reduction in eye velocity when the moving object was occluded. Although there was limited evidence of oculo-manual facilitation on behavioural measures, performing concurrent upper limb movement did result in lower activity in left medial PFC, as well as a change in PFC network organisation, which was shown by Graph analysis to be locally and globally more efficient. These findings extend upon previous work by showing how PFC is functionally organised to support eye-hand coordination when task demands more closely replicate daily activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lénaïc Borot
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ruth Ogden
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Simon J Bennett
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
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2
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Radecke JO, Sprenger A, Stöckler H, Espeter L, Reichhardt MJ, Thomann LS, Erdbrügger T, Buschermöhle Y, Borgwardt S, Schneider TR, Gross J, Wolters CH, Lencer R. Normative tDCS over V5 and FEF reveals practice-induced modulation of extraretinal smooth pursuit mechanisms, but no specific stimulation effect. Sci Rep 2023; 13:21380. [PMID: 38049419 PMCID: PMC10695990 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-48313-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The neural networks subserving smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM) provide an ideal model for investigating the interaction of sensory processing and motor control during ongoing movements. To better understand core plasticity aspects of sensorimotor processing for SPEM, normative sham, anodal or cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) was applied over visual area V5 and frontal eye fields (FEF) in sixty healthy participants. The identical within-subject paradigm was used to assess SPEM modulations by practice. While no specific tDCS effects were revealed, within- and between-session practice effects indicate plasticity of top-down extraretinal mechanisms that mainly affect SPEM in the absence of visual input and during SPEM initiation. To explore the potential of tDCS effects, individual electric field simulations were computed based on calibrated finite element head models and individual functional localization of V5 and FEF location (using functional MRI) and orientation (using combined EEG/MEG) was conducted. Simulations revealed only limited electric field target intensities induced by the applied normative tDCS montages but indicate the potential efficacy of personalized tDCS for the modulation of SPEM. In sum, results indicate the potential susceptibility of extraretinal SPEM control to targeted external neuromodulation (e.g., personalized tDCS) and intrinsic learning protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan-Ole Radecke
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562, Lübeck, Germany.
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany.
| | - Andreas Sprenger
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Neurology, University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Institute of Psychology II, University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Hannah Stöckler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Lisa Espeter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Mandy-Josephine Reichhardt
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Institute of Psychology II, University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Lara S Thomann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Tim Erdbrügger
- Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Yvonne Buschermöhle
- Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Stefan Borgwardt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Till R Schneider
- Department of Neurophysiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Joachim Gross
- Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Carsten H Wolters
- Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Rebekka Lencer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Lübeck, 23562, Lübeck, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
- Institute for Translational Psychiatry, University of Münster, 48149, Münster, Germany
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3
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Schröder R, Keidel K, Trautner P, Radbruch A, Ettinger U. Neural mechanisms of background and velocity effects in smooth pursuit eye movements. Hum Brain Mapp 2022; 44:1002-1018. [PMID: 36331125 PMCID: PMC9875926 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM) are essential to guide behaviour in complex visual environments. SPEM accuracy is known to be degraded by the presence of a structured visual background and at higher target velocities. The aim of this preregistered study was to investigate the neural mechanisms of these robust behavioural effects. N = 33 participants performed a SPEM task with two background conditions (present and absent) at two target velocities (0.4 and 0.6 Hz). Eye movement and BOLD data were collected simultaneously. Both the presence of a structured background and faster target velocity decreased pursuit gain and increased catch-up saccade rate. Faster targets additionally increased position error. Higher BOLD response with background was found in extensive clusters in visual, parietal, and frontal areas (including the medial frontal eye fields; FEF) partially overlapping with the known SPEM network. Faster targets were associated with higher BOLD response in visual cortex and left lateral FEF. Task-based functional connectivity analyses (psychophysiological interactions; PPI) largely replicated previous results in the basic SPEM network but did not yield additional information regarding the neural underpinnings of the background and velocity effects. The results show that the presentation of visual background stimuli during SPEM induces activity in a widespread visuo-parieto-frontal network including areas contributing to cognitive aspects of oculomotor control such as medial FEF, whereas the response to higher target velocity involves visual and motor areas such as lateral FEF. Therefore, we were able to propose for the first time different functions of the medial and lateral FEF during SPEM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristof Keidel
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of BonnBonnGermany,Department of FinanceThe University of MelbourneAustralia
| | - Peter Trautner
- Institute for Experimental Epileptology and Cognition ResearchUniversity of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Alexander Radbruch
- Clinic of NeuroradiologyUniversity HospitalBonnGermany,Clinical NeuroimagingGerman Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE)BonnGermany
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4
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Chen T, Ding J, Yue GH, Liu H, Li J, Jiang C. Global-local consistency benefits memory-guided tracking of a moving target. Brain Behav 2022; 12:e2444. [PMID: 34859605 PMCID: PMC8785627 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Previous findings have demonstrated that several Gestalt principles do facilitate VSTM performance in change detection tasks. However, few studies have investigated the role of and time-course of global-local consistency in motion perception. METHODS Participants were required to track a moving target surrounded by three different backgrounds: blank, inconsistent, or consistent. Global-local objects were be bound to move together (covariation). During the PMT, participants had to follow the moving target with their eyes and react as fast as possible when the target had just vanished behind the obstruction or would arrive at a predetermined point of interception. Variable error (VE) and constant error (CE) of estimated time-to-contact (TTC) and gain of smooth pursuit eye movements were calculated in various conditions and analyzed qualitatively. RESULTS Experiment 1 established the basic finding that VSTM performance could benefit from global-local consistency. Experiment 2 extended this finding by eye-tracking device. Both in visible phase and in occluded phase, CEs were smaller for the target in a consistent background than for the target in an inconsistent background and for the target in a blank background, with both differences significant (ps < .05). However, the difference in VE among three conditions was not significant. At early stage (100-250 ms), later stage (2750-3000 ms), and termination stage (5750-6000 ms) of smooth pursuit, the velocity gains were higher in the trials with consistent backgrounds than in the trials with inconsistent backgrounds and blank backgrounds (ps < .001). With the exception of 100-250 ms phase, the means did not differ between the inconsistent background and the blank background trials (ps > .1). CONCLUSIONS Global-local consistency could be activated within the first few hundred milliseconds to prioritize the deployment of attention and eye movement to component target. Meanwhile, it also removes ambiguity from motion tracking and TTC estimation under some unpredictable conditions, leading to the consistency advantage during smooth-pursuit termination phase. Global-local consistency may act as an important information source to TTC estimation and oculomotor response in PMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Chen
- School of EducationBeijing Dance AcademyBeijingP.R. China
| | - Jinhong Ding
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition & School of PsychologyCapital Normal UniversityBeijingP.R. China
| | - Guang H. Yue
- Human Performance and Engineering Research, Kessler FoundationWest OrangeNew Jersey
| | - Haoqiang Liu
- School of EducationShangdong Woman UniversityJinanP.R. China
| | - Jie Li
- Institute of Psychological SciencesHangzhou Normal UniversityHangzhouP.R. China
| | - Changhao Jiang
- Beijing Key Lab of Physical Fitness Evaluation and Tech AnalysisCapital University of Physical Education and SportsBeijingP.R. China
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5
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Yen C, Chiang MC. Examining the effect of online advertisement cues on human responses using eye-tracking, EEG, and MRI. Behav Brain Res 2021; 402:113128. [PMID: 33460680 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to emphasize how disciplines such as neuroscience and marketing can be applied in advertising and consumer behavior. The application of neuroscience methods in analyzing and understanding human behavior related to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and brain activity has recently garnered attention. This study examines brain processes while participants attempted to elicit preferences for a product, and demonstrates factors that influence consumer behavior using eye-tracking, electroencephalography (EEG), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) from a neuroscience approach. We planned two conditions of online advertising, namely, peripheral cues without argument and central cues with argument strength. Thirty respondents participated in the experiment, consisting of eye-tracking, EEG, and MRI instruments to explore brain activity in central cue conditions. We investigated whether diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) analysis could detect regional brain changes. Using eye-tracking, we found that the responses were mainly in the mean fixation duration, number of fixations, mean saccade duration, and number of saccade durations for the central cue condition. Moreover, the findings show that the fusiform gyrus and frontal cortex are significantly associated with building a relationship by inferring central cues in the EEG assay. The MRI images show that the fusiform gyrus and frontal cortex are significantly active in the central cue condition. DTI analysis indicates that the corpus callosum has changed in the central cue condition. We used eye-tracking, EEG, MRI, and DTI to understand that these connections may apprehend responses when viewing advertisements, especially in the fusiform gyrus, frontal cortex, and corpus callosum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiahui Yen
- Department of International Business, Ming Chuan University, Taipei 111, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chang Chiang
- Department of Life Science, College of Science and Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242, Taiwan.
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6
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Coiner B, Pan H, Bennett ML, Bodien YG, Iyer S, O'Neil-Pirozzi TM, Leung L, Giacino JT, Stern E. Functional neuroanatomy of the human eye movement network: a review and atlas. Brain Struct Funct 2019; 224:2603-2617. [PMID: 31407103 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-019-01932-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The human eye movement network is a complex system that requires the integration of sensory, motor, attentional, and executive processes. Here, we review the neuroanatomy of the eye movement network with an emphasis on functional neuroimaging applications. We consolidate the literature into a concise resource designed to be immediately accessible and applicable to diverse research interests, and present the novel Functional Oculomotor System (FOcuS) Atlas-a tool in stereotaxic space that will simplify and standardize the inclusion of the eye movement network in future functional neuroimaging studies. We anticipate this review and the FOcuS Atlas will facilitate increased examination of the eye movement network across disciplines leading to a thorough understanding of how eye movement network function contributes to higher-order cognition and how it is integrated with other brain networks. Furthermore, functional examination of the eye movement network in patient populations offers the potential for deeper insight into the role of eye movement circuitry in functional network activity, diagnostic assessments, and the indications for augmentative communication systems that rely on eye movement control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Coiner
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 221 Longwood Avenue, BLI442, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Eskind Family Biomedical Library and Learning Center, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 2209 Garland Avenue, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Hong Pan
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 221 Longwood Avenue, BLI442, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Monica L Bennett
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 221 Longwood Avenue, BLI442, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Yelena G Bodien
- Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Neurology, Center for Neurotechnology and Neurorecovery, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, 300 First Ave, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Swathi Iyer
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 221 Longwood Avenue, BLI442, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,The MathWorks, Inc, 1 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA, 01760, USA
| | - Therese M O'Neil-Pirozzi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, 300 First Ave, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.,Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Lorene Leung
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 221 Longwood Avenue, BLI442, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Boston University School of Medicine, 72 E Concord St, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Joseph T Giacino
- Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, 300 First Ave, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Emily Stern
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 221 Longwood Avenue, BLI442, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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7
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Bey K, Meyhöfer I, Lennertz L, Grützmann R, Heinzel S, Kaufmann C, Klawohn J, Riesel A, Ettinger U, Kathmann N, Wagner M. Schizotypy and smooth pursuit eye movements as potential endophenotypes of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019; 269:235-243. [PMID: 29721727 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-018-0899-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) show dysfunctions of the fronto-striatal circuitry, which imply corresponding oculomotor deficits including smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEM). However, evidence for a deficit in SPEM is inconclusive, with some studies reporting reduced velocity gain while others did not find any SPEM dysfunctions in OCD patients. Interestingly, psychosis-like traits have repeatedly been linked to both OCD and impaired SPEM. Here, we examined a large sample of n = 168 patients with OCD, n = 93 unaffected first-degree relatives and n = 171 healthy control subjects to investigate whether elevated levels of schizotypy and SPEM deficits represent potential endophenotypes of OCD. We applied a SPEM task with high demands on predictive pursuit that is more sensitive to assess executive dysfunctions than a standard task with continuous visual feedback, as episodes of target blanking put increased demands on basal ganglia and prefrontal involvement. Additionally, we examined the relation between schizotypy and SPEM performance in OCD patients and their relatives. Results indicate that OCD patients and unaffected relatives do not show deficient performance in either standard or predictive SPEM. Yet, both patients and relatives exhibited elevated levels of schizotypy, and schizotypy was significantly correlated with velocity gain during standard trials in unmedicated and depression-free OCD patients. These findings highlight the role of schizotypy as a candidate endophenotype of OCD and add to the growing evidence for predisposing personality traits in OCD. Furthermore, intact gain may represent a key characteristic that distinguishes the OCD and schizophrenia patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Bey
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127, Bonn, Germany. .,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.
| | - Inga Meyhöfer
- Department of Psychology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Leonhard Lennertz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Rosa Grützmann
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephan Heinzel
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Kaufmann
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julia Klawohn
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Biomedical Sciences and Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Anja Riesel
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Norbert Kathmann
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Wagner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53127, Bonn, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany.,Department for Neurodegenerative Diseases and Geriatric Psychiatry, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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8
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Motor Sequence Learning in the Brain: The Long and Short of It. Neuroscience 2018; 389:85-98. [PMID: 29427654 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Motor sequence learning involves predictive processing that results in the anticipation of each component of a sequence of actions. In smooth pursuit, this predictive processing is required to decrease tracking errors between the eye and the stimulus. Current models for motor sequence learning suggest parallel mechanisms in the brain for acquiring sequences of differing complexity. We examined this model by comparing shorter versus longer sequences of pursuit eye movements during fMRI. In this way we were able to identify overlapping and distinct brain areas involved in simple versus more complex oculomotor learning. Participants revealed predictive pursuit eye movements from the second presentation of the stimulus in both short and long sequences. Brain imaging results indicated activation of parallel brain areas for the different sequence lengths that consisted of the Inferior Occipital Gyrus and the Cingulate as areas in common. In addition, distinct activation was found in more working memory related brain regions for the shorter sequences (e.g. the middle frontal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), and higher activation in the frontal eye fields, supplementary motor cortex and motor cortex for the longer sequences, independent on the number of repetitions. These findings provide new evidence that there are parallel brain areas that involve working memory circuitry for short sequences, and more motoric areas when the sequence is longer and more cognitively demanding. Additionally, our findings are the first to show that the parallel brain regions involved in sequence learning in pursuit are independent of the number of repetitions, but contingent on sequence complexity.
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9
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Electrophysiological correlates of motion extrapolation: An investigation on the CNV. Neuropsychologia 2017; 95:86-93. [PMID: 27986635 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Motion extrapolation (ME), the ability to estimate the current position of moving objects hidden by an occluder, is critical to interact with a dynamic environment. In a typical paradigm, participants estimate time to contact (TTC) by pressing a button when they estimate the occluded moving target reaches a certain cue. Research using this paradigm has shown that motion adaptation of the occluded area produces a shift in the TTC estimate (Gilden et al., 1995). We examined the effect of motion adaptation on the contingent negative variation (CNV), a frontal electrophysiological component (Tecce, 1972) that could reflect the activity of an accumulator (Buhusi and Meck, 2005) for time processing. We predicted that longer TTC estimates due to previous visual motion adaptation would result in a larger CNV because the accumulator can collect more time units. Results showed that motion adaptation actually modulates the CNV, but the CNV amplitude did not correlate with TTC duration, falsifying the accumulator hypothesis. We suggest that motion adaptation interferes with the remembered speed (stored during the visible part of the trajectory) that may be used as input by higher cognitive function to guide the temporal update of target position, regardless of the TTC estimate.
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10
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Behavioral characterization of prediction and internal models in adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia 2016; 91:335-345. [PMID: 27553268 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Revised: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Autism has been considered as a deficit in prediction of the upcoming event or of the sensory consequences of our own movements. To test this hypothesis, we recorded eye movements from high-functioning autistic adolescents and from age-matched controls during a blanking paradigm. In this paradigm, adolescents were instructed to follow a moving target with their eyes even during its transient disappearance. Given the absence of visual information during the blanking period, eye movements during this period are solely controlled on the basis of the prediction of the ongoing target motion. Typical markers of predictive eye movements such as the number and accuracy of predictive saccades and the predictive reacceleration before target reappearance were identical in the two populations. In addition, the synergy of predictive saccades and smooth pursuit observed during the blanking periods, which is a marker for the quality of internal models about target/eye motions, was comparable between these two populations. These results suggest that, in our large population of high-functioning autistic adolescent, both predictive abilities and internal models are left intact in Autism, at least for low-level sensorimotor transformations.
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11
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The involvement of the fronto-parietal brain network in oculomotor sequence learning using fMRI. Neuropsychologia 2016; 87:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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12
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Disappearance of the inversion effect during memory-guided tracking of scrambled biological motion. Psychon Bull Rev 2016; 23:1170-80. [PMID: 26926834 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-015-0994-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The human visual system is highly sensitive to biological motion. Even when a point-light walker is temporarily occluded from view by other objects, our eyes are still able to maintain tracking continuity. To investigate how the visual system establishes a correspondence between the biological-motion stimuli visible before and after the disruption, we used the occlusion paradigm with biological-motion stimuli that were intact or scrambled. The results showed that during visually guided tracking, both the observers' predicted times and predictive smooth pursuit were more accurate for upright biological motion (intact and scrambled) than for inverted biological motion. During memory-guided tracking, however, the processing advantage for upright as compared with inverted biological motion was not found in the scrambled condition, but in the intact condition only. This suggests that spatial location information alone is not sufficient to build and maintain the representational continuity of the biological motion across the occlusion, and that the object identity may act as an important information source in visual tracking. The inversion effect disappeared when the scrambled biological motion was occluded, which indicates that when biological motion is temporarily occluded and there is a complete absence of visual feedback signals, an oculomotor prediction is executed to maintain the tracking continuity, which is established not only by updating the target's spatial location, but also by the retrieval of identity information stored in long-term memory.
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Diwakar M, Harrington DL, Maruta J, Ghajar J, El-Gabalawy F, Muzzatti L, Corbetta M, Huang MX, Lee RR. Filling in the gaps: Anticipatory control of eye movements in chronic mild traumatic brain injury. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2015; 8:210-23. [PMID: 26106545 PMCID: PMC4473731 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2015.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
A barrier in the diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) stems from the lack of measures that are adequately sensitive in detecting mild head injuries. MRI and CT are typically negative in mTBI patients with persistent symptoms of post-concussive syndrome (PCS), and characteristic difficulties in sustaining attention often go undetected on neuropsychological testing, which can be insensitive to momentary lapses in concentration. Conversely, visual tracking strongly depends on sustained attention over time and is impaired in chronic mTBI patients, especially when tracking an occluded target. This finding suggests deficient internal anticipatory control in mTBI, the neural underpinnings of which are poorly understood. The present study investigated the neuronal bases for deficient anticipatory control during visual tracking in 25 chronic mTBI patients with persistent PCS symptoms and 25 healthy control subjects. The task was performed while undergoing magnetoencephalography (MEG), which allowed us to examine whether neural dysfunction associated with anticipatory control deficits was due to altered alpha, beta, and/or gamma activity. Neuropsychological examinations characterized cognition in both groups. During MEG recordings, subjects tracked a predictably moving target that was either continuously visible or randomly occluded (gap condition). MEG source-imaging analyses tested for group differences in alpha, beta, and gamma frequency bands. The results showed executive functioning, information processing speed, and verbal memory deficits in the mTBI group. Visual tracking was impaired in the mTBI group only in the gap condition. Patients showed greater error than controls before and during target occlusion, and were slower to resynchronize with the target when it reappeared. Impaired tracking concurred with abnormal beta activity, which was suppressed in the parietal cortex, especially the right hemisphere, and enhanced in left caudate and frontal–temporal areas. Regional beta-amplitude demonstrated high classification accuracy (92%) compared to eye-tracking (65%) and neuropsychological variables (80%). These findings show that deficient internal anticipatory control in mTBI is associated with altered beta activity, which is remarkably sensitive given the heterogeneity of injuries. Neuropsychological test performance was impaired in mTBI patients. Visual tracking was impaired in the gap task, where targets were randomly occluded. Impaired visual tracking concurred with abnormal MEG beta activity. Beta was suppressed in parietal and enhanced in caudate and frontal–temporal areas. Regional MEG beta-amplitude demonstrated high classification accuracy (92%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithun Diwakar
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Deborah L Harrington
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA ; Radiology and Research Services, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jun Maruta
- Brain Trauma Foundation, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jamshid Ghajar
- Brain Trauma Foundation, New York, NY, USA ; Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Fady El-Gabalawy
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Laura Muzzatti
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
| | | | - Ming-Xiong Huang
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA ; Radiology and Research Services, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Roland R Lee
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA ; Radiology and Research Services, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
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Song Y, Mu K, Wang J, Lin F, Chen Z, Yan X, Hao Y, Zhu W, Zhang H. Altered spontaneous brain activity in primary open angle glaucoma: a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89493. [PMID: 24586822 PMCID: PMC3933564 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Previous studies demonstrated that primary open angle glaucoma (POAG) is associated with abnormal brain structure; however, little is known about the changes in the local synchronization of spontaneous activity. The main objective of this study was to investigate spontaneous brain activity in patients with POAG using regional homogeneity (ReHo) analysis based on resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI). Methodology/Principal Findings Thirty-nine POAG patients and forty-one age- and gender- matched healthy controls were finally included in the study. ReHo values were used to evaluate spontaneous brain activity and whole brain voxel-wise analysis of ReHo was carried out to detect differences by region in spontaneous brain activity between groups. Compared to controls, POAG patients showed increased ReHo in the right dorsal anterior cingulated cortex, the bilateral medial frontal gyrus and the right cerebellar anterior lobe, and decreased ReHo in the bilateral calcarine, bilateral precuneus gryus, bilateral pre/postcentral gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule and left cerebellum posterior lobe. A multiple linear regression analysis was performed to explore the relationships between clinical measures and ReHo by region showed significant group differences in the POAG group. Negative correlations were found between age and the ReHo values of the superior frontal gyrus (r = −0.323, p = 0.045), left calcarine (r = −0.357, p = 0.026) and inferior parietal lobule (r = −0.362, p = 0.024). A negative correlation was found between the ReHo values of the left precuneus and the cumulative mean defect (r = −0.400, p = 0.012). Conclusions POAG was associated with abnormal brain spontaneous activity in some brain regions and such changed regional activity may be associated with clinical parameters. Spontaneous brain activity may play a role in POAG initiation and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinwei Song
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ketao Mu
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Junming Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fuchun Lin
- Wuhan Center for Magnetic Resonance, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- * E-mail: (FL); (WZ); (HZ)
| | - Zhiqi Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoqin Yan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yonghong Hao
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenzhen Zhu
- Department of Radiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- * E-mail: (FL); (WZ); (HZ)
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- * E-mail: (FL); (WZ); (HZ)
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15
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Burke MR, Barnes GR. In pursuit of delay-related brain activity for anticipatory eye movements. PLoS One 2013; 8:e73326. [PMID: 24039911 PMCID: PMC3767777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
How the brain stores motion information and subsequently uses it to follow a moving target is largely unknown. This is mainly due to previous fMRI studies using paradigms in which the eye movements cannot be segregated from the storage of this motion information. To avoid this problem we used a novel paradigm designed in our lab in which we interlaced a delay (2, 4 or 6 seconds) between the 1st and 2nd presentation of a moving stimulus. Using this design we could examine brain activity during a delay period using fMRI and have subsequently found a number of brain areas that reveal sustained activity during predictive pursuit. These areas include, the V5 complex and superior parietal lobe. This study provides new evidence for the network involved in the storage of visual information to generate early motor responses in pursuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie R. Burke
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Graham R. Barnes
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, Lancashire, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Dorsal anterior cingulate and bilateral anterior insula form a task control network (TCN) whose primary function includes initiating and maintaining task-level cognitive set and exerting top-down regulation of sensorimotor processing. The default mode network (DMN), comprising an anatomically distinct set of cortical areas, mediates introspection and self-referential processes. Resting-state data show that TCN and DMN interact. The functional ramifications of their interaction remain elusive. Recording fMRI data from human subjects performing a visual spatial attention task and correlating Granger causal influences with behavioral performance and blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) activity we report three main findings. First, causal influences from TCN to DMN, i.e., TCN → DMN, are positively correlated with behavioral performance. Second, causal influences from DMN to TCN, i.e., DMN → TCN, are negatively correlated with behavioral performance. Third, stronger DMN → TCN are associated with less elevated BOLD activity in TCN, whereas the relationship between TCN → DMN and DMN BOLD activity is unsystematic. These results suggest that, during visual spatial attention, top-down signals from TCN to DMN regulate the activity in DMN to enhance behavioral performance, whereas signals from DMN to TCN, acting possibly as internal noise, interfere with task control, leading to degraded behavioral performance.
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Coppe S, Orban de Xivry JJ, Yüksel D, Ivanoiu A, Lefèvre P. Dramatic impairment of prediction due to frontal lobe degeneration. J Neurophysiol 2012; 108:2957-66. [PMID: 22956792 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00582.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Prediction is essential for motor function in everyday life. For instance, predictive mechanisms improve the perception of a moving target by increasing eye speed anticipatively, thus reducing motion blur on the retina. Subregions of the frontal lobes play a key role in eye movements in general and in smooth pursuit in particular, but their precise function is not firmly established. Here, the role of frontal lobes in the timing of predictive action is demonstrated by studying predictive smooth pursuit during transient blanking of a moving target in mild frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. While control subjects and AD patients predictively reaccelerated their eyes before the predicted time of target reappearance, FTLD patients did not. The difference was so dramatic (classification accuracy >90%) that it could even lead to the definition of a new biomarker. In contrast, anticipatory eye movements triggered by the disappearance of the fixation point were still present before target motion onset in FTLD patients and visually guided pursuit was normal in both patient groups compared with controls. Therefore, FTLD patients were only impaired when the predicted timing of an external event was required to elicit an action. These results argue in favor of a role of the frontal lobes in predictive movement timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Coppe
- ICTEAM, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
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18
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Bastin J, Lebranchu P, Jerbi K, Kahane P, Orban G, Lachaux JP, Berthoz A. Direct recordings in human cortex reveal the dynamics of gamma-band [50-150 Hz] activity during pursuit eye movement control. Neuroimage 2012; 63:339-47. [PMID: 22819950 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/08/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The time course of neural activity in human brain regions involved in mediating pursuit eye movements is unclear. To address this question, we recorded intracerebral electroencephalography activity in eight epileptic patients while they performed a pursuit task that dissociates reactive, predictive and inhibited pursuits. A sustained gamma band (50-150 Hz) activity corresponding to pursuit maintenance was observed in the pursuit (and not saccade) area of the frontal eye field (FEF), in the ventral intraparietal sulcus (VIPS) and in occipital areas. The latency of gamma increase was found to precede target onset in FEF and VIPS, suggesting that those areas could also be involved during pursuit preparation/initiation. During pursuit inhibition, a sustained gamma band response was observed within prefrontal areas (pre-supplementary-motor-area, dorso-lateral prefrontal and frontopolar cortex). This study describes for the first time the dynamics of the neural activity in four areas of the pursuit system, not previously available in humans. These findings provide novel timing constraints to current models of the human pursuit system and establish the relevance of direct recordings to precisely relate eye movement behavior with neural activity in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Bastin
- UMR 7152, CNRS-Collège de France, Laboratoire de Physiologie de Perception et de l'Action, Paris, France.
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Makin ADJ, Poliakoff E, Ackerley R, El-Deredy W. Covert tracking: a combined ERP and fixational eye movement study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38479. [PMID: 22719893 PMCID: PMC3374826 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention can be directed to particular spatial locations, or to objects that appear at anticipated points in time. While most work has focused on spatial or temporal attention in isolation, we investigated covert tracking of smoothly moving objects, which requires continuous coordination of both. We tested two propositions about the neural and cognitive basis of this operation: first that covert tracking is a right hemisphere function, and second that pre-motor components of the oculomotor system are responsible for driving covert spatial attention during tracking. We simultaneously recorded event related potentials (ERPs) and eye position while participants covertly tracked dots that moved leftward or rightward at 12 or 20°/s. ERPs were sensitive to the direction of target motion. Topographic development in the leftward motion was a mirror image of the rightward motion, suggesting that both hemispheres contribute equally to covert tracking. Small shifts in eye position were also lateralized according to the direction of target motion, implying covert activation of the oculomotor system. The data addresses two outstanding questions about the nature of visuospatial tracking. First, covert tracking is reliant upon a symmetrical frontoparietal attentional system, rather than being right lateralized. Second, this same system controls both pursuit eye movements and covert tracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis D. J. Makin
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Ellen Poliakoff
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Rochelle Ackerley
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Wael El-Deredy
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Goepel J, Kissler J, Rockstroh B, Paul-Jordanov I. Medio-frontal and anterior temporal abnormalities in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) during an acoustic antisaccade task as revealed by electro-cortical source reconstruction. BMC Psychiatry 2011; 11:7. [PMID: 21226906 PMCID: PMC3025949 DOI: 10.1186/1471-244x-11-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent disorders in children and adolescence. Impulsivity is one of three core symptoms and likely associated with inhibition difficulties. To date the neural correlate of the antisaccade task, a test of response inhibition, has not been studied in children with (or without) ADHD. METHODS Antisaccade responses to visual and acoustic cues were examined in nine unmedicated boys with ADHD (mean age 122.44 ± 20.81 months) and 14 healthy control children (mean age 115.64 ± 22.87 months, three girls) while an electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. Brain activity before saccade onset was reconstructed using a 23-source-montage. RESULTS When cues were acoustic, children with ADHD had a higher source activity than control children in Medio-Frontal Cortex (MFC) between -230 and -120 ms and in the left-hemispheric Temporal Anterior Cortex (TAC) between -112 and 0 ms before saccade onset, despite both groups performing similarly behaviourally (antisaccades errors and saccade latency). When visual cues were used EEG-activity preceding antisaccades did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION Children with ADHD exhibit altered functioning of the TAC and MFC during an antisaccade task elicited by acoustic cues. Children with ADHD need more source activation to reach the same behavioural level as control children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Goepel
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Johanna Kissler
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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Andreatta RD, Stemple JC, Joshi A, Jiang Y. Task-related differences in temporo-parietal cortical activation during human phonatory behaviors. Neurosci Lett 2010; 484:51-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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