1
|
Guo L, Du QQ, Cheng PQ, Yang TT, Xing CQ, Luo XZ, Peng XC, Qian F, Huang JR, Tang FR. Neuroprotective Effects of Lycium barbarum Berry on Neurobehavioral Changes and Neuronal Loss in the Hippocampus of Mice Exposed to Acute Ionizing Radiation. Dose Response 2021; 19:15593258211057768. [PMID: 34887716 PMCID: PMC8649475 DOI: 10.1177/15593258211057768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Brain exposure to ionizing radiation during the
radiotherapy of brain tumor or metastasis of peripheral cancer cells to the
brain has resulted in cognitive dysfunction by reducing neurogenesis in
hippocampus. The water extract of Lycium barbarum berry (Lyc),
containing water-soluble Lycium barbarum polysaccharides and
flavonoids, can protect the neuronal injury by reducing oxidative stress and
suppressing neuroinflammation. Reseach Design: To demonstrate the long-term radioprotective effect
of Lyc, we evaluated the neurobehavioral alterations and the numbers of NeuN,
calbindin (CB), and parvalbumin (PV) immunopositive hippocampal neurons in
BALB/c mice after acute 5.5 Gy radiation with/without oral administration of Lyc
at the dosage of 10 g/kg daily for 4 weeks. Results: The results showed that Lyc could improve
irradiation-induced animal weight loss, depressive behaviors, spatial memory
impairment, and hippocampal neuron loss. Immunohistochemistry study demonstrated
that the loss of NeuN-immunopositive neuron in the hilus of the dentate gyrus,
CB-immunopositive neuron in CA1 strata radiatum, lacunosum moleculare and
oriens, and PV-positive neuron in CA1 stratum pyramidum and stratum granulosum
of the dentate gyrus after irradiation were significantly improved by Lyc
treatment. Conclusion: The neuroprotective effect of Lyc on those hippocampal
neurons may benefit the configuration of learning related neuronal networks and
then improve radiation induced neurobehavioral changes such as cognitive
impairment and depression. It suggests that Lycium
barbarum berry may be an alternative food supplement to prevent
radiation-induced neuron loss and neuropsychological disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Guo
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Qian-Qian Du
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Piao-Qin Cheng
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Ting-Ting Yang
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Chao-Qun Xing
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Xue-Zhi Luo
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Chun Peng
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Feng Qian
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Jiang-Rong Huang
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Health Science Center, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, China
| | - Feng-Ru Tang
- Radiation Physiology Laboratory, Singapore Nuclear Research and Safety Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Non-Newly Generated, "Immature" Neurons in the Sheep Brain Are Not Restricted to Cerebral Cortex. J Neurosci 2017; 38:826-842. [PMID: 29217680 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1781-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A newly proposed form of brain structural plasticity consists of non-newly generated, "immature" neurons of the adult cerebral cortex. Similar to newly generated neurons, these cells express the cytoskeletal protein Doublecortin (DCX), yet they are generated prenatally and then remain in a state of immaturity for long periods. In rodents, the immature neurons are restricted to the paleocortex, whereas in other mammals, they are also found in neocortex. Here, we analyzed the DCX-expressing cells in the whole sheep brain of both sexes to search for an indicator of structural plasticity at a cellular level in a relatively large-brained, long-living mammal. Brains from adult and newborn sheep (injected with BrdU and analyzed at different survival times) were processed for DCX, cell proliferation markers (Ki-67, BrdU), pallial/subpallial developmental origin (Tbr1, Sp8), and neuronal/glial antigens for phenotype characterization. We found immature-like neurons in the whole sheep cortex and in large populations of DCX-expressing cells within the external capsule and the surrounding gray matter (claustrum and amygdala). BrdU and Ki-67 detection at neonatal and adult ages showed that all of these DCX+ cells were generated during embryogenesis, not after birth. These results show that the adult sheep, unlike rodents, is largely endowed with non-newly generated neurons retaining immature features, suggesting that such plasticity might be particularly important in large-brained, long-living mammals.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Brain plasticity is important in adaptation and brain repair. Structural changes span from synaptic plasticity to adult neurogenesis, the latter being highly reduced in large-brained, long-living mammals (e.g., humans). The cerebral cortex contains "immature" neurons, which are generated prenatally and then remain in an undifferentiated state for long periods, being detectable with markers of immaturity. We studied the distribution and developmental origin of these cells in the whole brain of sheep, relatively large-brained, long-living mammals. In addition to the expected cortical location, we also found populations of non-newly generated neurons in several subcortical regions (external capsule, claustrum, and amygdala). These results suggests that non-neurogenic, parenchymal structural plasticity might be more important in large mammals with respect to adult neurogenesis.
Collapse
|
3
|
Song J, Olsen RHJ, Sun J, Ming GL, Song H. Neuronal Circuitry Mechanisms Regulating Adult Mammalian Neurogenesis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2016; 8:cshperspect.a018937. [PMID: 27143698 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a018937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The adult mammalian brain is a dynamic structure, capable of remodeling in response to various physiological and pathological stimuli. One dramatic example of brain plasticity is the birth and subsequent integration of newborn neurons into the existing circuitry. This process, termed adult neurogenesis, recapitulates neural developmental events in two specialized adult brain regions: the lateral ventricles of the forebrain. Recent studies have begun to delineate how the existing neuronal circuits influence the dynamic process of adult neurogenesis, from activation of quiescent neural stem cells (NSCs) to the integration and survival of newborn neurons. Here, we review recent progress toward understanding the circuit-based regulation of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Song
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacology Training Program, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 Neuroscience Center and Neurobiology Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Reid H J Olsen
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacology Training Program, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Jiaqi Sun
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Guo-Li Ming
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana 70130-2685
| | - Hongjun Song
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, Louisiana 70130-2685
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Oomen CA, Bekinschtein P, Kent BA, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis and its role in cognition. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2014; 5:573-587. [PMID: 26308746 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) has intrigued neuroscientists for decades. Several lines of evidence show that adult-born neurons in the hippocampus are functionally integrated and contribute to cognitive function, in particular learning and memory processes. Biological properties of immature hippocampal neurons indicate that these cells are more easily excitable compared with mature neurons, and demonstrate enhanced structural plasticity. The structure in which adult-born hippocampal neurons are situated-the dentate gyrus-is thought to contribute to hippocampus function by disambiguating similar input patterns, a process referred to as pattern separation. Several ideas about AHN function have been put forward; currently there is good evidence in favor of a role for AHN in pattern separation. This function of AHN may be understood within a 'representational-hierarchical' view of brain organization. WIREs Cogn Sci 2014, 5:573-587. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1304 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte A Oomen
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Pedro Bekinschtein
- Facultad de Medicina, UBA-CONICET, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Brianne A Kent
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lisa M Saksida
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Timothy J Bussey
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,MRC and Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vivar C, van Praag H. Functional circuits of new neurons in the dentate gyrus. Front Neural Circuits 2013; 7:15. [PMID: 23443839 PMCID: PMC3580993 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2013.00015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus is crucial for memory formation. New neurons are added throughout life to the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG), a brain area considered important for differential storage of similar experiences and contexts. To better understand the functional contribution of adult neurogenesis to pattern separation processes, we recently used a novel synapse specific trans-neuronal tracing approach to identify the (sub) cortical inputs to new dentate granule cells (GCs). It was observed that newly born neurons receive sequential innervation from structures important for memory function. Initially, septal-hippocampal cells provide input to new neurons, including transient innervation from mature GCs as well as direct feedback from area CA3 pyramidal neurons. After about 1 month perirhinal (PRH) and lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC), brain areas deemed relevant to integration of novel sensory and environmental information, become substantial input to new GCs. Here, we review the developmental time-course and proposed functional relevance of new neurons, within the context of their unique neural circuitry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Vivar
- Neuroplasticity and Behavior Unit, Laboratory of Neurosciences, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Monosynaptic inputs to new neurons in the dentate gyrus. Nat Commun 2013; 3:1107. [PMID: 23033083 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms2101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 08/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is considered important for cognition. The integration of newborn dentate gyrus granule cells into the existing network is regulated by afferent neuronal activity of unspecified origin. Here we combine rabies virus-mediated retrograde tracing with retroviral labelling of new granule cells (21, 30, 60, 90 days after injection) to selectively identify and quantify their monosynaptic inputs in vivo. Our results show that newborn granule cells receive afferents from intra-hippocampal cells (interneurons, mossy cells, area CA3 and transiently, mature granule cells) and septal cholinergic cells. Input from distal cortex (perirhinal (PRH) and lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC)) is sparse 21 days after injection and increases over time. Patch-clamp recordings support innervation by the LEC rather than from the medial entorhinal cortex. Mice with excitotoxic PRH/LEC lesions exhibit deficits in pattern separation but not in water maze learning. Thus, PRH/LEC input is an important functional component of new dentate gyrus neuron circuitry.
Collapse
|
7
|
Bonfanti L, Nacher J. New scenarios for neuronal structural plasticity in non-neurogenic brain parenchyma: the case of cortical layer II immature neurons. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 98:1-15. [PMID: 22609484 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Revised: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system, due to its interaction with the environment, must be endowed with plasticity. Conversely, the nervous tissue must be substantially static to ensure connectional invariability. Structural plasticity can be viewed as a compromise between these requirements. In adult mammals, brain structural plasticity is strongly reduced with respect to other animal groups in the phylogenetic tree. It persists under different forms, which mainly consist of remodeling of neuronal shape and connectivity, and, to a lesser extent, the production of new neurons. Adult neurogenesis is mainly restricted within two neurogenic niches, yet some gliogenic and neurogenic processes also occur in the so-called non-neurogenic tissue, starting from parenchymal progenitors. In this review we focus on a population of immature, non-newly generated neurons in layer II of the cerebral cortex, which were previously thought to be newly generated since they heavily express the polysialylated form of the neural cell adhesion molecule and doublecortin. These unusual neurons exhibit characteristics defining an additional type of structural plasticity, different from either synaptic plasticity or adult neurogenesis. Evidences concerning their morphology, antigenic features, ultrastructure, phenotype, origin, fate, and reaction to different kind of stimulations are gathered and analyzed. Their possible role is discussed in the context of an enriched complexity and heterogeneity of mammalian brain structural plasticity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bonfanti
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole 10, Orbassano (TO), and Department of Veterinary Morphophysiology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Piccolini V, Cerri S, Romanelli E, Bernocchi G. Interactions of neurotransmitter systems during postnatal development of the rat hippocampal formation: Effects of cisplatin. Exp Neurol 2012; 234:239-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.12.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Revised: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 12/25/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
9
|
Volz F, Bock HH, Gierthmuehlen M, Zentner J, Haas CA, Freiman TM. Stereologic estimation of hippocampal GluR2/3- and calretinin-immunoreactive hilar neurons (presumptive mossy cells) in two mouse models of temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2011; 52:1579-89. [PMID: 21635231 DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03086.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Hippocampal mossy cells receive dense innervation from dentate granule cells and, in turn, mossy cells innervate both granule cells and interneurons. Mossy cell loss is thought to trigger granule cell mossy fiber sprouting, which may affect granule cell excitability. The aim of this study was to quantify mossy cell loss in two animal models of temporal lobe epilepsy, and determine whether there exists a relationship between mossy cell loss, mossy fiber sprouting, and granule cell dispersion. METHODS Representative hippocampal sections from p35 knockout mice and mice with unilateral intrahippocampal kainate injection were immunolabeled for GluR2/3, two subunits of the amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) receptor and calretinin to identify mossy cells. Mossy fibers were immunostained against synaptoporin. KEY FINDINGS p35 Knockout mice showed no hilar cell death, but moderate mossy fiber sprouting and granule cell dispersion. In the kainate-injected hippocampus, there was an 80% and 85% reduction of GluR2/3- and GluR2/3/calretinin-positive hilar neurons, respectively, and dense mossy fiber sprouting and significant granule cell dispersion. In the contralateral hippocampus there was a 52% loss of GluR2/3-, but only a 20% loss of GluR2/3-calretinin-immunoreactive presumptive mossy cells, and granule cell dispersion; no mossy fiber sprouting was observed. SIGNIFICANCE These results indicate a probable lack of causality between mossy cell death and mossy fiber sprouting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Volz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Thalamocortical pathfinding defects precede degeneration of the reticular thalamic nucleus in polysialic acid-deficient mice. J Neurosci 2011; 31:1302-12. [PMID: 21273415 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5609-10.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The modification of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) with polysialic acid (polySia) is tightly linked to neural development. Genetic ablation of the polySia-synthesizing enzymes ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV generates polySia-negative but NCAM-positive (II(-/-)IV(-/-)) mice characterized by severe defects of major brain axon tracts, including internal capsule hypoplasia. Here, we demonstrate that misguidance of thalamocortical fibers and deficiencies of corticothalamic connections contribute to internal capsule defects in II(-/-)IV(-/-) mice. Thalamocortical fibers cross the primordium of the reticular thalamic nucleus (Rt) at embryonic day 14.5, before they fail to turn into the ventral telencephalon, thus deviating from their normal trajectory without passing through the internal capsule. At postnatal day 1, a reduction and massive disorganization of fibers traversing the Rt was observed, whereas terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling and cleaved caspase-3 staining indicated abundant apoptotic cell death of Rt neurons at postnatal day 5. Furthermore, during postnatal development, the number of Rt neurons was drastically reduced in 4-week-old II(-/-)IV(-/-) mice, but not in the NCAM-deficient N(-/-) or II(-/-)IV(-/-)N(-/-) triple knock-out animals displaying no internal capsule defects. Thus, degeneration of the Rt in II(-/-)IV(-/-) mice may be a consequence of malformation of thalamocortical and corticothalamic fibers providing major excitatory input into the Rt. Indeed, apoptotic death of Rt neurons could be induced by lesioning corticothalamic fibers on whole-brain slice cultures. We therefore propose that anterograde transneuronal degeneration of the Rt in polysialylation-deficient, NCAM-positive mice is caused by defective afferent innervation attributable to thalamocortical pathfinding defects.
Collapse
|
11
|
Fgfr2 is required for the development of the medial prefrontal cortex and its connections with limbic circuits. J Neurosci 2010; 30:5590-602. [PMID: 20410112 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5837-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the role of specific fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) in cortical development, we conditionally inactivated Fgfr2 or both Fgfr1 and Fgfr2 [Fgfr2 conditional knock-out (cKO) or double knock-out mice, respectively] in radial glial cells of the dorsal telencephalon. Fgfr1 and Fgfr2 are necessary for the attainment of a normal number of excitatory neurons in the cerebral cortex. The action of FGF receptors appears to be through increasing self-renewal of neuronal precursors within the ventricular zone. Volume measurements, assessments of excitatory neuron number, and areal marker expression suggested that the proper formation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) depends on the function of Fgfr2, whereas Fgfr1 together with Fgfr2 control excitatory cortical neuron development within the entire cerebral cortex. Fgfr2 cKO mice had fewer and smaller glutamate synaptic terminals in the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (BST), a projection area for mPFC cortical neurons. Furthermore, Fgfr2 cKO mice showed secondary decreases in GABAergic neurons in the BST and septum. These data demonstrate that FGFR2 signaling expands the number of excitatory neurons in the mPFC and secondarily influences target neurons in subcortical stations of the limbic system.
Collapse
|
12
|
Gómez-Climent MA, Castillo-Gómez E, Varea E, Guirado R, Blasco-Ibáñez JM, Crespo C, Martínez-Guijarro FJ, Nácher J. A population of prenatally generated cells in the rat paleocortex maintains an immature neuronal phenotype into adulthood. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 18:2229-40. [PMID: 18245040 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhm255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
New neurons in the adult brain transiently express molecules related to neuronal development, such as the polysialylated form of neural cell adhesion molecule, or doublecortin (DCX). These molecules are also expressed by a cell population in the rat paleocortex layer II, whose origin, phenotype, and function are not clearly understood. We have classified most of these cells as a new cell type termed tangled cell. Some cells with the morphology of semilunar-pyramidal transitional neurons were also found among this population, as well as some scarce cells resembling semilunar, pyramidal. and fusiform neurons. We have found that none of these cells in layer II express markers of glial cells, mature, inhibitory, or principal neurons. They appear to be in a prolonged immature state, confirmed by the coexpression of DCX, TOAD/Ulip/CRMP-4, A3 subunit of the cyclic nucleotide-gated channel, or phosphorylated cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein. Moreover, most of them lack synaptic contacts, are covered by astroglial lamellae, and fail to express cellular activity markers, such as c-Fos or Arc, and N-methyl-d-aspartate or glucocorticoid receptors. We have found that none of these cells appear to be generated during adulthood or early youth and that most of them have been generated during embryonic development, mainly in E15.5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Angeles Gómez-Climent
- Neurobiology Unit and Program in Basic and Applied Neurosciences, Cell Biology Dpt., Universitat de València, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|