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Tsotsokou G, Trompoukis G, Papatheodoropoulos C. Muscarinic Modulation of Synaptic Transmission and Short-Term Plasticity in the Dorsal and Ventral Hippocampus. Mol Cell Neurosci 2024; 129:103935. [PMID: 38703973 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2024.103935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Muscarinic neurotransmission is fundamentally involved in supporting several brain functions by modulating flow of information in brain neural circuits including the hippocampus which displays a remarkable functional segregation along its longitudinal axis. However, how muscarinic neuromodulation contributes to the functional segregation along the hippocampus remains unclear. In this study we show that the nonselective muscarinic receptor agonist carbachol similarly suppresses basal synaptic transmission in the dorsal and ventral CA1 hippocampal field, in a concentration-depended manner. Furthermore, using a ten-pulse stimulation train of varying frequency we found that carbachol changes the frequency filtering properties more in ventral than dorsal hippocampus by facilitating synaptic inputs at a wide range of input frequencies in the ventral compared with dorsal hippocampus. Using the M2 receptor antagonist gallamine and the M4 receptor antagonist tropicamide, we found that M2 receptors are involved in controlling basal synaptic transmission and short-term synaptic plasticity (STSP) in the ventral but not the dorsal hippocampus, while M4 receptors participate in modulating basal synaptic transmission and STSP in both segments of the hippocampus. These results were corroborated by the higher protein expression levels of M2 receptors in the ventral compared with dorsal hippocampus. We conclude that muscarinic transmission modulates excitatory synaptic transmission and short-term synaptic plasticity along the entire rat hippocampus by acting through M4 receptors and recruiting M2 receptors only in the ventral hippocampus. Furthermore, M4 receptors appear to exert a permissive role on the actions of M2 receptors on STSP in the ventral hippocampus. This dorsoventral differentiation of muscarinic modulation is expected to have important implications in information processing along the endogenous hippocampal circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giota Tsotsokou
- Laboratory of Physiology, University of Patras, Department of Medicine, Rion, Greece
| | - George Trompoukis
- Laboratory of Physiology, University of Patras, Department of Medicine, Rion, Greece
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Sowndharya S, Rajan KE. Environmental enrichment improves social isolation-induced memory impairment: The possible role of ITSN1-Reelin-AMPA receptor signaling pathway. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0294354. [PMID: 38241230 PMCID: PMC10798460 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0294354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Environmental enrichment (EE) through combination of social and non-biological stimuli enhances activity-dependent synaptic plasticity and improves behavioural performance. Our earlier studies have suggested that EE resilience the stress induced depression/ anxiety-like behaviour in Indian field mice Mus booduga. This study was designed to test whether EE reverses the social isolation (SI) induced effect and improve memory. Field-caught mice M. booduga were subjected to behaviour test (Direct wild, DW), remaining animals were housed under SI for ten days and then housed for short-term at standard condition (STSC)/ long-term at standard condition (LTSC) or as group in EE cage. Subsequently, we have examined reference, working memory and expression of genes associated with synaptic plasticity. Our analysis have shown that EE reversed SI induced impairment in reference, working memory and other accompanied changes i.e. increased level of Intersectin 1 (ITSN1), Huntingtin (Htt), Synaptotagmin -IV (SYT4), variants of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf - III), α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor (GluR1) expression, and decreased variants of Bdnf (IV), BDNF, Reelin, Apolipoprotein E receptor 2 (ApoER2), very low-density lipoprotein receptor (VLDLR), Src family tyrosine kinase (SFKs), Disabled protein (Dab)-1, Protein kinase B (PKB/Akt), GluR2, Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) expression. In addition, SI induced reduction in BDNF expressing neurons in dentate gyrus of hippocampus reversed by EE. Further, we found that SI decreases small neuro-active molecules such as Benzenedicarboxylic acid, and increases 2-Pregnene in the hippocampus and feces reversed by EE. Overall, this study demonstrated that EE is effectively reversed the SI induced memory impairment by potentially regulating the molecules associated with the ITSN1-Reelin-AMPA receptor pathway to increase synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swamynathan Sowndharya
- Behavioural Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, India
| | - Koilmani Emmanuvel Rajan
- Behavioural Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, India
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Cadoret A, Dion-Albert L, Amrani S, Caron L, Théberge M, Turmel A, Lebel M, Menard C. Environmental conditions of recognition memory testing induce neurovascular changes in the hippocampus in a sex-specific manner in mice. Behav Brain Res 2023; 448:114443. [PMID: 37088405 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Experiences are linked to emotions impacting memory consolidation and associated brain neuronal circuits. Posttraumatic stress disorder is an example of strong negative emotions affecting memory processes by flashbacks of past traumas. Stress-related memory deficits are also observed in major depressive disorder (MDD). We recently highlighted that sex-specific blood-brain barrier (BBB) alterations underlie stress responses in mice and human depression. However, little is known about the relationship between emotional valence, memory encoding and BBB gene expression. Here, we investigated the effects of novel object recognition (NOR) test, an experience considered of neutral emotional valence, on BBB properties in dorsal vs ventral hippocampus (HIPP) in the context of various environmental conditions (arena size, handling, age). The HIPP is a brain area central for learning and memory processes with the dorsal and ventral subregions being associated with working memory vs reference memory retrieval, respectively. Expression of genes related to BBB integrity are altered in line with learning and memory processes in a region- and sex-specific manner. We observed correlations between poor learning, anxiety, stress-induced corticosterone release and changes in BBB-associated gene expression. Comparison of BBB transcriptomes between sexes also revealed profound differences at baseline in both ventral and dorsal HIPP. Finally, we identified circulating vascular biomarkers, such as sE-selectin and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9), altered following NOR exposure supporting that recognition memory formation has an impact on the neurovasculature. Although deemed as a neutral valence test, NOR experimental conditions can shift it toward a negative valence, impacting performance and highlighting the need to minimize anxiety when performing this commonly used test in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Cadoret
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Laurence Dion-Albert
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Sara Amrani
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Laurianne Caron
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Mathilde Théberge
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Audrey Turmel
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Manon Lebel
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2
| | - Caroline Menard
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and CERVO Brain Research Center, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada, G1E 1T2.
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Yao R, Yamada K, Kito T, Aizu N, Iwata D, Izawa S, Nishii K, Sawada H, Chihara T. Novel shaking exercises for hippocampal and medial prefrontal cortex functioning maintain spatial working memory. Exp Gerontol 2023; 171:112024. [PMID: 36372283 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2022.112024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The decline in spatial working memory is one of the earliest signs of normal brain aging. OBJECTIVE We developed a novel physical exercise method, termed the "shaking exercise," to slow down this process. METHODS The experimental protocol included administering the shaking exercise for 8-32 weeks in male senescence-accelerated mouse prone 10 (SAMP-10). They were subjected to the T-maze test, followed by immunohistochemical analysis, to assess the influence of the shaking exercise on the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRM1) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) of the dorsal hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (dHC-mPFC). RESULTS The T-maze test demonstrated that the shaking group had less hesitation in the face of selecting direction at week 24. In the immunohistochemical analysis, more CHRM1s were in the CA3 subregion and more AMPARs were in the subiculum. CHRM1s and AMPARs were maintained in the CA1 region and the mPFC. The CHRM1s seem to have a positive effect on the AMPAR in the dentate gyrus (DG) region and the CA3 region. In the CA1 region, CHRM1s were negatively correlated with AMPARs. In addition, high-density neurons were expressed in the shaking group in the upstream DG, the middle part and the distal part of CA3, the distal part of CA1, and the mPFC. CONCLUSIONS Our results raise the possibility that maintenance of the spatial working memory effect observed with the shaking exercise is driven in part by the uneven affection of CHRM1s and AMPARs in the dHC-mPFC circuit system and significantly maintains the neuronal expression in the dHC-mPFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runhong Yao
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Health Sciences, Japan University of Health Sciences, Satte, Saitama 340-0145, Japan; Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Kouji Yamada
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Takumi Kito
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan; Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kinjo University, Hakusan, Ishikawa 924-8511, Japan
| | - Naoki Aizu
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Daiki Iwata
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Sho Izawa
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiro Nishii
- Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan.
| | - Hirohide Sawada
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Nursing and Medical Care, Yokkaichi Nursing and Medical Care University, Yokkaichi, Mie 512-8045, Japan.
| | - Takeshi Chihara
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Nursing and Medical Care, Yokkaichi Nursing and Medical Care University, Yokkaichi, Mie 512-8045, Japan.
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Pak S, Jang D, Lee J, Choi G, Shin H, Yang S, Yang S. Hippocampal interlamellar cell-cell connectome that counts. J Cell Physiol 2022; 237:4037-4048. [PMID: 36063532 PMCID: PMC9826151 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The hippocampus is regarded as a cognition hub, particularly for learning and memory. Previously, neuronal mechanisms underlying various cognitive functions are delineated with the lamellar hippocampal circuitry, dentate gyrus-CA3 or CA2-CA1, within the transverse plane. More recently, interlamellar (often referred to as longitudinal) projections have received intensive attention to help understand signal convergence and divergence in cognition and behavior. Signal propagation along the longitudinal axis is evidenced by axonal arborization patterns and synaptic responses to electro- and photo-stimulation, further demonstrating that information flow is more enriched in the longitudinal plane than the transverse plane. Here, we review the significance of longitudinal connections for cognition, discuss a putative circuit mechanism of place coding, and suggest the reconceptualization of the hippocampal circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sojeong Pak
- Department of NeuroscienceCity University of Hong KongKowloonHong Kong SAR
| | - Doohyeong Jang
- Department of Nano‐BioengineeringIncheon National UniversityIncheonSouth Korea
| | - Jinho Lee
- Department of Nano‐BioengineeringIncheon National UniversityIncheonSouth Korea
| | - Gona Choi
- Department of NeuroscienceCity University of Hong KongKowloonHong Kong SAR
| | - Hongseong Shin
- Department of Nano‐BioengineeringIncheon National UniversityIncheonSouth Korea
| | - Sungchil Yang
- Department of NeuroscienceCity University of Hong KongKowloonHong Kong SAR
| | - Sunggu Yang
- Department of Nano‐BioengineeringIncheon National UniversityIncheonSouth Korea
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Décarie-Spain L, Liu CM, Lauer LT, Subramanian K, Bashaw AG, Klug ME, Gianatiempo IH, Suarez AN, Noble EE, Donohue KN, Cortella AM, Hahn JD, Davis EA, Kanoski SE. Ventral hippocampus-lateral septum circuitry promotes foraging-related memory. Cell Rep 2022; 40:111402. [PMID: 36170832 PMCID: PMC9605732 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Remembering the location of a food or water source is essential for survival. Here, we reveal that spatial memory for food location is reflected in ventral hippocampus (HPCv) neuron activity and is impaired by HPCv lesion. HPCv mediation of foraging-related memory involves communication to the lateral septum (LS), as either reversible or chronic disconnection of HPCv-to-LS signaling impairs spatial memory retention for food or water location. This neural pathway selectively encodes appetitive spatial memory, as HPCv-LS disconnection does not affect spatial memory for escape location in a negative reinforcement procedure, food intake, or social and olfactory-based appetitive learning. Neural pathway tracing and functional mapping analyses reveal that LS neurons recruited during the appetitive spatial memory procedure are primarily GABAergic neurons that project to the lateral hypothalamus. Collective results emphasize that the neural substrates controlling spatial memory are outcome specific based on reinforcer modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léa Décarie-Spain
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Clarissa M Liu
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, 3641Watt Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Logan Tierno Lauer
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Keshav Subramanian
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, 3641Watt Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Alexander G Bashaw
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, 3641Watt Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Molly E Klug
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Isabella H Gianatiempo
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Andrea N Suarez
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Emily E Noble
- Department of Foods and Nutrition, University of Georgia, 305 Sanford Drive, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Kristen N Donohue
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Alyssa M Cortella
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Joel D Hahn
- Neurobiology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Davis
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Scott E Kanoski
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, 3641Watt Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
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7
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Han JX, Wen CX, Sun R, Tang MY, Li XM, Lian H. The dorsal hippocampal CA3 regulates spatial reference memory through the CtBP2/GluR2 pathway. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22456. [PMID: 35969153 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202101609rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The dorsal hippocampus plays a pivotal role in spatial memory. However, the role of subregion-specific molecular pathways in spatial cognition remains unclear. We observed that the transcriptional coregulator C-terminal binding protein 2 (CtBP2) presented CA3-specific enrichment in expression. RNAi interference of CtBP2 in the dorsal CA3 (dCA3) neurons, but not the ventral CA3 (vCA3), specifically impaired spatial reference memory and reduced the expression of GluR2, the calcium permeability determinant subunit of AMPA receptors. Application of an antagonist for GluR2-absent calcium permeable AMPA receptors rescued spatial memory deficits in dCA3 CtBP2 knockdown animals. Transcriptomic analysis suggest that CtBP2 may regulate GluR2 protein level through post-translational mechanisms, especially by the endocytosis pathway which regulates AMPA receptor sorting. Consistently, CtBP2 deficiency altered the mRNA expression of multiple endocytosis-regulatory genes, and CtBP2 knockdown in primary hippocampal neurons enhanced GluR2-containing AMPA receptor endocytosis. Together, our results provide evidence that the dCA3 regulates spatial reference memory by the CtBP2/GluR2 pathway through the modulation of calcium permeable AMPA receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Xuan Han
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Center of Brain Science and Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chen-Xi Wen
- NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Center of Brain Science and Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Rui Sun
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Center of Brain Science and Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Meng-Yu Tang
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Center of Brain Science and Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Li
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC and CAMS Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Center of Brain Science and Brain-machine Integration, School of Brain Science and Brain Medicine, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong Lian
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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8
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A. Samara M, Oikonomou GD, Trompoukis G, Madarou G, Adamopoulou M, Papatheodoropoulos C. Septotemporal variation in modulation of synaptic transmission, paired-pulse ratio and frequency facilitation/depression by adenosine and GABA B receptors in the rat hippocampus. Brain Neurosci Adv 2022; 6:23982128221106315. [PMID: 35782711 PMCID: PMC9240614 DOI: 10.1177/23982128221106315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Short-term synaptic plasticity represents a fundamental mechanism in
neural information processing and is regulated by neuromodulators.
Here, using field recordings from the CA1 region of adult rat
hippocampal slices, we show that excitatory synaptic transmission is
suppressed by strong but not moderate activation of adenosine
A1 receptors by
2-Chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA) more in the dorsal
than the ventral hippocampus; in contrast, both mild and strong
activation of GABAB receptors by baclofen (1 μM, 10 μM)
suppress synaptic transmission more in the ventral than the dorsal
hippocampus. Using a 10-pulse stimulation train of variable frequency,
we found that CCPA modulates short-term synaptic plasticity
independently of the suppression of synaptic transmission in both
segments of the hippocampus and at stimulation frequencies greater
than 10 Hz. However, specifically regarding the paired-pulse ratio
(PPR) and frequency facilitation/depression (FF/D) we found
significant drug action before but not after adjusting conditioning
responses to control levels. Activation of GABABRs by
baclofen suppressed synaptic transmission more in the ventral than the
dorsal hippocampus. Furthermore, relatively high (10 μM) but not low
(1 μM) baclofen concentration enhanced both PPR and FF in both
hippocampal segments at stimulation frequencies greater than 1 Hz,
independently of the suppression of synaptic transmission by baclofen.
These results show that A1Rs and GABABRs control
synaptic transmission more effectively in the dorsal and the ventral
hippocampus, respectively, and suggest that these receptors modulate
PPR and FF/D at different frequency bands of afferent input, in both
segments of the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. Samara
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras, Rion, Greece
| | - George D. Oikonomou
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras, Rion, Greece
| | - George Trompoukis
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras, Rion, Greece
| | - Georgia Madarou
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras, Rion, Greece
| | - Maria Adamopoulou
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Medicine, University of Patras, Rion, Greece
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9
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Ramos JMJ. Rapid decay of spatial memory acquired in rats with ventral hippocampus lesions. Behav Brain Res 2022; 431:113962. [PMID: 35697178 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Several memory consolidation theories have proposed that following a learning situation the hippocampus gradually stabilizes labile recent memories into long-lasting remote memories. Most work in this field has focused on the dorsal hippocampus (DHip), giving little consideration to a possible contribution by the ventral hippocampus (VHip), particularly when spatial paradigms are used. However, in recent years a growing number of studies have suggested the existence of a functional continuum, related to spatial processing and navigation, along the dorsoventral hippocampal axis. For this reason, in the present study we compare the effect of DHip vs. VHip lesions on long-term spatial memory retention. Using a four-arm plus-shaped maze, rats with lesions in the DHip, VHip or sham-lesioned learned to criterion a place discrimination task based on allothetic cues. During two retraining phases (2 days and 24 days after learning) retention of the spatial information learned during the acquisition phase was evaluated. The main findings revealed no deficit 2 days after learning, but 24 days after learning both lesioned groups showed a profound impairment compared to control animals (expt. 1). In contrast, when rats learned a cue-guided navigation task in the acquisition phase, both lesioned groups performed the two retention tests, 2 days and 24 days after learning, at the same level as the control group (expt. 2). These results suggest not only that the DHip is vital, but also that normal VHip activity is critical during the post-learning period in order for a recent spatial memory to become a stable long-term memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M J Ramos
- Department of Psychobiology and Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada 18071, Spain.
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10
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de Siqueira Mendes FDCC, de Almeida MNF, Falsoni M, Andrade MLF, Felício APG, da Paixão LTVB, Júnior FLDA, Anthony DC, Brites D, Diniz CWP, Sosthenes MCK. The Sedentary Lifestyle and Masticatory Dysfunction: Time to Review the Contribution to Age-Associated Cognitive Decline and Astrocyte Morphotypes in the Dentate Gyrus. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23116342. [PMID: 35683023 PMCID: PMC9180988 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 05/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
As aging and cognitive decline progresses, the impact of a sedentary lifestyle on the appearance of environment-dependent cellular morphologies in the brain becomes more apparent. Sedentary living is also associated with poor oral health, which is known to correlate with the rate of cognitive decline. Here, we will review the evidence for the interplay between mastication and environmental enrichment and assess the impact of each on the structure of the brain. In previous studies, we explored the relationship between behavior and the morphological features of dentate gyrus glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes during aging in contrasting environments and in the context of induced masticatory dysfunction. Hierarchical cluster and discriminant analysis of GFAP-positive astrocytes from the dentate gyrus molecular layer revealed that the proportion of AST1 (astrocyte arbors with greater complexity phenotype) and AST2 (lower complexity) are differentially affected by environment, aging and masticatory dysfunction, but the relationship is not straightforward. Here we re-evaluated our previous reconstructions by comparing dorsal and ventral astrocyte morphologies in the dentate gyrus, and we found that morphological complexity was the variable that contributed most to cluster formation across the experimental groups. In general, reducing masticatory activity increases astrocyte morphological complexity, and the effect is most marked in the ventral dentate gyrus, whereas the effect of environment was more marked in the dorsal dentate gyrus. All morphotypes retained their basic structural organization in intact tissue, suggesting that they are subtypes with a non-proliferative astrocyte profile. In summary, the increased complexity of astrocytes in situations where neuronal loss and behavioral deficits are present is counterintuitive, but highlights the need to better understand the role of the astrocyte in these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabíola de Carvalho Chaves de Siqueira Mendes
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
- Curso de Medicina, Centro Universitário do Estado do Pará, Belém 66613-903, PA, Brazil
| | - Marina Negrão Frota de Almeida
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - Manoela Falsoni
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - Marcia Lorena Ferreira Andrade
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - André Pinheiro Gurgel Felício
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - Luisa Taynah Vasconcelos Barbosa da Paixão
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - Fábio Leite do Amaral Júnior
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - Daniel Clive Anthony
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropathology, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QT, UK;
| | - Dora Brites
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-004 Lisbon, Portugal;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-004 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Cristovam Wanderley Picanço Diniz
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
| | - Marcia Consentino Kronka Sosthenes
- Laboratório de Investigações em Neurodegeneração e Infecção, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Hospital Universitário João de Barros Barreto, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém 66073-005, PA, Brazil; (F.d.C.C.d.S.M.); (M.N.F.d.A.); (M.F.); (M.L.F.A.); (A.P.G.F.); (L.T.V.B.d.P.); (F.L.d.A.J.); (C.W.P.D.)
- Correspondence:
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11
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Ramos JMJ, Morón I. Ventral hippocampus lesions and allocentric spatial memory in the radial maze: Anterograde and retrograde deficits. Behav Brain Res 2022; 417:113620. [PMID: 34624425 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Although the dorsal hippocampus (DHip) has been clearly implicated in spatial learning and memory, there is currently debate as to whether the ventral hippocampus (VHip) is also necessary in allocentric-based navigation tasks. To differentiate between these two subregions of the hippocampal dorsoventral axis, we examined the effect of neurotoxic lesions to the DHip and VHip in different learning situations, using a four-arm plus-shaped maze. In experiment 1 a spatial reference memory task was used, with results showing an acquisition deficit in DHip-lesioned rats but perfect learning in VHip-lesioned rats. However, in experiment 2 an acquisition deficit was found in VHip-lesioned rats using a doubly marked training protocol. In this case the position of the goal arm during training was marked simultaneously by the extramaze constellation of stimuli around the maze and an intramaze cue. The main results indicated that DHip and VHip groups presented significantly more allocentric errors in the probe test than the control rats. In experiments 3 and 4, animals with their brains still intact learned, respectively, a spatial reference memory task or a purely cue-guided navigation task, and DHip and VHip lesions were made 2-3 days after reaching learning criterion. Results indicated a profound retrograde deficit in both lesioned groups but only with regard to allocentric information. So, depending on the training protocol used, our results point to increased integration and cooperation throughout the hippocampal dorsoventral axis when allocentric learning and memory is involved. These data support the existence of a functional continuum from the dorsal to the ventral hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M J Ramos
- Department of Psychobiology and Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada 18071, Spain.
| | - Ignacio Morón
- Department of Psychobiology and Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada 18071, Spain
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12
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Mátyás A, Borbély E, Mihály A. Hippocampal Sclerosis in Pilocarpine Epilepsy: Survival of Peptide-Containing Neurons and Learning and Memory Disturbances in the Adult NMRI Strain Mouse. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:ijms23010204. [PMID: 35008630 PMCID: PMC8745054 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The present experiments reveal the alterations of the hippocampal neuronal populations in chronic epilepsy. The mice were injected with a single dose of pilocarpine. They had status epilepticus and spontaneously recurrent motor seizures. Three months after pilocarpine treatment, the animals were investigated with the Barnes maze to determine their learning and memory capabilities. Their hippocampi were analyzed 2 weeks later (at 3.5 months) with standard immunohistochemical methods and cell counting. Every animal displayed hippocampal sclerosis. The neuronal loss was evaluated with neuronal-N immunostaining, and the activation of the microglia was measured with Iba1 immunohistochemistry. The neuropeptide Y, parvalbumin, and calretinin immunoreactive structures were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed in the hippocampal formation. The results were compared statistically to the results of the control mice. We detected neuronal loss and strongly activated microglia populations. Neuropeptide Y was significantly upregulated in the sprouting axons. The number of parvalbumin- and calretinin-containing interneurons decreased significantly in the Ammon’s horn and dentate gyrus. The epileptic animals displayed significantly worse learning and memory functions. We concluded that degeneration of the principal neurons, a numerical decrease of PV-containing GABAergic neurons, and strong peptidergic axonal sprouting were responsible for the loss of the hippocampal learning and memory functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne Mátyás
- Department of Anatomy, Albert Szent-Györgyi Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Kossuth L. sgt. 38, H-6724 Szeged, Hungary;
| | - Emőke Borbély
- Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér. 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary;
- Professional Pedagogical Service of Csongrád-Csanád County, Űrhajós u. 4, H-6723 Szeged, Hungary
| | - András Mihály
- Department of Anatomy, Albert Szent-Györgyi Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Kossuth L. sgt. 38, H-6724 Szeged, Hungary;
- Correspondence:
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13
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Zhang D, Wang M, Gao J, Huang Y, Qi F, Lei Y, Ai K, Yan X, Cheng M, Su Y, Lei X, Zhang X. Altered Functional Connectivity of Insular Subregions in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:676624. [PMID: 34220433 PMCID: PMC8242202 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.676624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetes-related brain damage can lead to cognitive decline and increase the risk of depression, but the neuropathological mechanism of this phenomenon remains unclear. Different insular subregions have obvious functional heterogeneity, which is related to many aspects of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)-related brain damage. However, little is known about changes in functional connectivity (FC) in insular subregions in patients with T2DM. Therefore, we aimed to investigate FC between different insular subregions and clinical/cognitive variables in patients with T2DM. Fifty-seven patients with T2DM and 55 healthy controls (HCs) underwent a neuropsychological assessment and resting-state FC examination. We defined three insular subregions, including the bilateral dorsal anterior insula (dAI), bilateral ventral anterior insula (vAI), and bilateral posterior insula (PI). We examined differences in FC between insular subregions and the whole brain in patients with T2DM compared with HCs. A correlation analysis was performed to examine the relationship between FC and clinical/cognitive variables. Compared with HCs, patients with T2DM showed significantly decreased FC between the dAI and the right inferior frontal gyrus, right superior/middle temporal gyrus, right hippocampus, and right precentral gyrus. FC between the vAI and the right supramarginal gyrus, as well as the PI and the right precentral/postcentral gyrus, was reduced in the T2DM group compared with the control group. In the T2DM group, we showed a significant negative correlation between glycated hemoglobin concentration and FC in the dAI and right hippocampus (r = −0.428, P = 0.001) after Bonferroni correction. We conclude that different insular subregions present distinct FC patterns with functional regions and that abnormal FC in these insular subregions may affect cognitive, emotional, and sensorimotor functions in patients with T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongsheng Zhang
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Man Wang
- Department of Graduate, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jie Gao
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Yang Huang
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Fei Qi
- Department of Graduate, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yumeng Lei
- Department of Graduate, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Kai Ai
- Department of Clinical Science, Philips Healthcare, Xi'an, China
| | - Xuejiao Yan
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Miao Cheng
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Yu Su
- Department of Graduate, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiaoyan Lei
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiaoling Zhang
- Department of MRI, Shaanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Xi'an, China
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14
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The Continuity of Context: A Role for the Hippocampus. Trends Cogn Sci 2021; 25:187-199. [PMID: 33431287 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tracking moment-to-moment change in input and detecting change sufficient to require altering behavior is crucial to survival. Here, we discuss how the brain evaluates change over time, focusing on the hippocampus and its role in tracking context. We leverage the anatomy and physiology of the hippocampal longitudinal axis, re-entrant loops, and amorphous networks to account for stimulus equivalence and the updating of an organism's sense of its context. Place cells have a central role in tracking contextual continuities and discontinuities across multiple scales, a capacity beyond current models of pattern separation and completion. This perspective highlights the critical role of the hippocampus in both spatial cognition and episodic memory: tracking change and detecting boundaries separating one context, or episode, from another.
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15
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Rattner A, Terrillion CE, Jou C, Kleven T, Hu SF, Williams J, Hou Z, Aggarwal M, Mori S, Shin G, Goff LA, Witter MP, Pletnikov M, Fenton AA, Nathans J. Developmental, cellular, and behavioral phenotypes in a mouse model of congenital hypoplasia of the dentate gyrus. eLife 2020; 9:62766. [PMID: 33084572 PMCID: PMC7577738 DOI: 10.7554/elife.62766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In the hippocampus, a widely accepted model posits that the dentate gyrus improves learning and memory by enhancing discrimination between inputs. To test this model, we studied conditional knockout mice in which the vast majority of dentate granule cells (DGCs) fail to develop – including nearly all DGCs in the dorsal hippocampus – secondary to eliminating Wntless (Wls) in a subset of cortical progenitors with Gfap-Cre. Other cells in the Wlsfl/-;Gfap-Cre hippocampus were minimally affected, as determined by single nucleus RNA sequencing. CA3 pyramidal cells, the targets of DGC-derived mossy fibers, exhibited normal morphologies with a small reduction in the numbers of synaptic spines. Wlsfl/-;Gfap-Cre mice have a modest performance decrement in several complex spatial tasks, including active place avoidance. They were also modestly impaired in one simpler spatial task, finding a visible platform in the Morris water maze. These experiments support a role for DGCs in enhancing spatial learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Rattner
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Chantelle E Terrillion
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Claudia Jou
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Robert F. Furchgott Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, United States
| | - Tina Kleven
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience and Center for Neural Computation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Shun Felix Hu
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Robert F. Furchgott Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, United States
| | - John Williams
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Zhipeng Hou
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Manisha Aggarwal
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Susumu Mori
- Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Gloria Shin
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States.,Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Loyal A Goff
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States.,Department of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Menno P Witter
- Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience and Center for Neural Computation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Mikhail Pletnikov
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - André A Fenton
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Robert F. Furchgott Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, United States.,Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, United States.,Neuroscience Institute at the New York University Langone Medical Center, New York University, New York, United States
| | - Jeremy Nathans
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
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