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Wang J, Li Z, Zhao Q. Receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor serves as a potential target in cancer immunotherapy. J Leukoc Biol 2024:qiae141. [PMID: 38973261 DOI: 10.1093/jleuko/qiae141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor (ROR), consisting of ROR1 and ROR2, is a conserved family of receptor tyrosine kinase superfamily that plays crucial roles during embryonic development with limited expression in adult normal tissues. However, it is overexpressed in a range of hematological malignancies and solid tumors and functions in cellular processes including cell survival, polarity, and migration, serving as a potential target in cancer immunotherapy. This review summarizes the expression and structure of ROR in developmental morphogenesis and its function in cancers associated with Wnt5a signaling and highlights the cancer immunotherapy strategies targeting ROR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Wang
- Cancer Centre, Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR 999078, China
| | - Zhoufang Li
- Core Research Facilities, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Qi Zhao
- Cancer Centre, Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR 999078, China
- MoE Frontiers Science Center for Precision Oncology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR 999078, China
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2
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Lips A, Calvano Küchler E, Ribeiro Madalena I, Nivoloni Tannure P, Santos Antunes L, Azeredo Alves Antunes L, Castro Costa M, Proff P, Kirschneck C, Baratto-Filho F. Non-syndromic supernumerary teeth and association with a self-reported family history of cancer. J Orofac Orthop 2023:10.1007/s00056-023-00504-z. [PMID: 38051344 DOI: 10.1007/s00056-023-00504-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Supernumerary teeth are an alteration of dental developmental and result in the formation of teeth above the usual number. Epidemiologic studies suggested that patients with dentofacial anomalies and their family members may present an increased risk of developing cancer, including female breast cancer and gynecologic cancers. These observations indicate that genetic alterations that result in dental anomalies may be related to cancer development. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the association between supernumerary teeth and a family history of female breast cancer and gynecologic cancers. METHODS The diagnosis of supernumerary teeth was based on clinical and radiographic examinations. For data collection, a questionnaire asking for information regarding ethnicity, age, gender, and self-reported family history of cancer up to the second generation was used. Statistical analysis was performed using the Χ2 test and Fisher's exact test with an established α of 5%. RESULTS A total of 344 patients were included; 47 of them had one or more non-syndromic supernumerary teeth (not associated with any syndrome or cleft lip and palate) and 297 were control patients. Age, ethnicity, and gender distribution were not statistically different between the group with supernumerary teeth and the control group (p > 0.05). The supernumerary teeth were most commonly observed in the incisors area. Breast cancer (n = 17) was the most commonly self-reported type of cancer, followed by uterine cervical (n = 10), endometrial (n = 2), and ovarian (n = 1) cancers. Endometrial cancer was significantly associated with the diagnosis of supernumerary teeth (p = 0.017). CONCLUSION This study suggests that patients with supernumerary teeth possess a higher risk of having family members with endometrial cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Lips
- Department of Dentistry, University of Joinville Region, Joinville, SC, Brazil
| | - Erika Calvano Küchler
- Department of Orthodontics, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Welschnonnenstr. 17, 53111, Bonn, Germany.
| | - Isabela Ribeiro Madalena
- Department of Dentistry, University of Joinville Region, Joinville, SC, Brazil
- School of Dentistry, Presidente Tancredo de Almeida Neves University Center, São João del Rei, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Leonardo Santos Antunes
- Postgraduate Program in Dentistry, Health Institute of Nova Friburgo, Fluminense Federal University, Nova Friburgo, RJ, Brazil
| | - Livia Azeredo Alves Antunes
- Postgraduate Program in Dentistry, Health Institute of Nova Friburgo, Fluminense Federal University, Nova Friburgo, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Peter Proff
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Orthodontics, Rio de Janeiro Federal University, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Christian Kirschneck
- Department of Orthodontics, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Welschnonnenstr. 17, 53111, Bonn, Germany
| | - Flares Baratto-Filho
- Department of Dentistry, University of Joinville Region, Joinville, SC, Brazil
- School of Dentistry, Tuiuti University from Parana, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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Shao J, Liu Y, Zhao S, Sun W, Zhan J, Cao L. A novel variant in the ROR2 gene underlying brachydactyly type B: a case report. BMC Pediatr 2022; 22:528. [PMID: 36064339 PMCID: PMC9446770 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-022-03564-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Brachydactyly type B is an autosomal dominant disorder that is characterized by hypoplasia of the distal phalanges and nails and can be divided into brachydactyly type B1 (BDB1) and brachydactyly type B2 (BDB2). BDB1 is the most severe form of brachydactyly and is caused by truncating variants in the receptor tyrosine kinase–like orphan receptor 2 (ROR2) gene. Case presentation Here, we report a five-generation Chinese family with brachydactyly with or without syndactyly. The proband and her mother underwent digital separation in syndactyly, and the genetic analyses of the proband and her parents were provided. The novel heterozygous frameshift variant c.1320dupG, p.(Arg441Alafs*18) in the ROR2 gene was identified in the affected individuals by whole-exome sequencing and Sanger sequencing. The c.1320dupG variant in ROR2 is predicted to produce a truncated protein that lacks tyrosine kinase and serine/threonine- and proline-rich structures and remarkably alters the tertiary structures of the mutant ROR2 protein. Conclusion The c.1320dupG, p.(Arg441Alafs*18) variant in the ROR2 gene has not been reported in any databases thus far and therefore is novel. Our study extends the gene variant spectrum of brachydactyly and may provide information for the genetic counselling of family members. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12887-022-03564-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqi Shao
- College of Kinesiology, Shenyang Sport University, No. 36 Jinqiansong East Road, Sujiatun District, Shenyang, 110102, China
| | - Yue Liu
- Hand SurgeryCentral Hospital Affiliated to Shenyang Medical CollegeTiexi District, Dept.4No. 5 Nanqi West Road, Shenyang, 110024, China
| | - Shuyang Zhao
- College of Kinesiology, Shenyang Sport University, No. 36 Jinqiansong East Road, Sujiatun District, Shenyang, 110102, China
| | - Weisheng Sun
- College of Kinesiology, Shenyang Sport University, No. 36 Jinqiansong East Road, Sujiatun District, Shenyang, 110102, China
| | - Jie Zhan
- Hand SurgeryCentral Hospital Affiliated to Shenyang Medical CollegeTiexi District, Dept.4No. 5 Nanqi West Road, Shenyang, 110024, China.
| | - Lihua Cao
- College of Kinesiology, Shenyang Sport University, No. 36 Jinqiansong East Road, Sujiatun District, Shenyang, 110102, China.
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4
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Jiang Y. Osteoarthritis year in review 2021: biology. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2022; 30:207-215. [PMID: 34801671 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2021.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This year in review on osteoarthritis biology summarizes a series of research articles published between the 2020 and 2021 Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) World Congress. Research hightlights were selected and discussed based on the new discoveries of OA's cellular molecular mechanism, anatomical signatures, potential therapeutic targets, and regenerative therapy. The recently developed potential therapeutic targets are summarized, and the research focuses on TGFβ and WNT signaling in joint tissue homeostasis, joint aging and the dynamic of synolytics in OA joint, and the roles of TRP2, LDHA, OSCAR in cartilage homeostasis and OA joints are highlighted. Subsquencially, new anatomical structures and OA features are introduced, such as synovitis-induced venous portal circulation, horiozontal fissures between cartilage and subchondral bone, the cellular derivation of osteophytes formation, OA subtypes, and subchondral remodeling and pain biology. Then, research on the possibility of tissue regeneration in OA joints are discussed; skeletal stem cells in OA cartilage regeneration, and preclinical results of regenerative therapy for meniscus tear and osteochondral tissue morphoghesis are included. At last, the clinical evidence of the importance of delivery site of bone marrow stem cells for OA treatment is discussed. These findings represent advances in our understanding of OA pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Jiang
- Institute for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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5
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Lojk J, Marc J. Roles of Non-Canonical Wnt Signalling Pathways in Bone Biology. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:10840. [PMID: 34639180 PMCID: PMC8509327 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The Wnt signalling pathway is one of the central signalling pathways in bone development, homeostasis and regulation of bone mineral density. It consists of numerous Wnt ligands, receptors and co-receptors, which ensure tight spatiotemporal regulation of Wnt signalling pathway activity and thus tight regulation of bone tissue homeostasis. This enables maintenance of optimal mineral density, tissue healing and adaptation to changes in bone loading. While the role of the canonical/β-catenin Wnt signalling pathway in bone homeostasis is relatively well researched, Wnt ligands can also activate several non-canonical, β-catenin independent signalling pathways with important effects on bone tissue. In this review, we will provide a thorough overview of the current knowledge on different non-canonical Wnt signalling pathways involved in bone biology, focusing especially on the pathways that affect bone cell differentiation, maturation and function, processes involved in bone tissue structure regulation. We will describe the role of the two most known non-canonical pathways (Wnt/planar cell polarity pathways and Wnt/Ca2+ pathway), as well as other signalling pathways with a strong role in bone biology that communicate with the Wnt signalling pathway through non-canonical Wnt signalling. Our goal is to bring additional attention to these still not well researched but important pathways in the regulation of bone biology in the hope of prompting additional research in the area of non-canonical Wnt signalling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasna Lojk
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Janja Marc
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- University Clinical Center Ljubljana, Clinical Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Robinow syndrome in a newborn presenting with hydrocephalus and craniosynostosis. Childs Nerv Syst 2021; 37:3235-3239. [PMID: 33595708 DOI: 10.1007/s00381-021-05087-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Robinow syndrome is a rare entity with a characteristic appearance, such as hypertelorism, short stature, mesomelic shortening of the limbs, hypoplastic genitalia, and rib as well as vertebral anomalies. We had treated a patient with Robinow syndrome who developed hydrocephalus and craniosynostosis which is not usually associated. CASE PRESENTATION The ventricle enlargement was detected during pregnancy in a female infant. She did not develop hydrocephalus just after birth. Her facial appearance was fetus-like, so the pediatricians had suspected Robinow syndrome. During follow-up examinations, a rapidly enlarging head circumference was detected when she was 3 months old. Her conscious level was not disturbed, but she had a tight fontanel and sunset phenomenon was recognized. Hydrocephalus was diagnosed by radiographic imaging so that she underwent ventriculo-peritoneal shunting (VPS). Her irregular head enlargement seized. Six months after surgery, her parents noticed the brachycephalic shape of her head. A computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) scan were conducted and showed that her bilateral coronal, bilateral lambdoid, and the sagittal suture were fused in addition with a tonsillar herniation. Since the sutures were not remaining, we diagnosed that this was a primary pan synostosis rather than secondary craniosynostosis due to VPS. Posterior cranial vault distraction with foramen magnum decompression (FMD) was conducted. The distractor was extended by 1 mm per day up to 30 mm. After a consolidation period of 2 months, the distractors were removed. Through this intervention, a 15.4% increase (+196cc) of the intracranial space with an improvement of the chronic tonsillar herniation was achieved. CONCLUSION To confirm the diagnosis of Robinow syndrome, a genetic test was conducted. The analysis showed ROR2 Exon3 (c233 c>t p. Thr 78 Met), which is found in the recessive type of Robinow syndrome. We report this patient as, to our best knowledge, the first case documented case of Robinow disease presenting with hydrocephalus and craniosynostosis. Posterior cranial vault distraction with FMD is a useful way to treat this condition.
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Proteomic analysis identifies the E3 ubiquitin ligase Pdzrn3 as a regulatory target of Wnt5a-Ror signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2104944118. [PMID: 34135125 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2104944118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Wnt5a-Ror signaling is a conserved pathway that regulates morphogenetic processes during vertebrate development [R. T. Moon et al, Development 119, 97-111 (1993); I. Oishi et al, Genes Cells 8, 645-654 (2003)], but its downstream signaling events remain poorly understood. Through a large-scale proteomic screen in mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase Pdzrn3 as a regulatory target of the Wnt5a-Ror pathway. Upon pathway activation, Pdzrn3 is degraded in a β-catenin-independent, ubiquitin-proteasome system-dependent manner. We developed a flow cytometry-based reporter to monitor Pdzrn3 abundance and delineated a signaling cascade involving Frizzled, Dishevelled, Casein kinase 1, and Glycogen synthase kinase 3 that regulates Pdzrn3 stability. Epistatically, Pdzrn3 is regulated independently of Kif26b, another Wnt5a-Ror effector. Wnt5a-dependent degradation of Pdzrn3 requires phosphorylation of three conserved amino acids within its C-terminal LNX3H domain [M. Flynn, O. Saha, P. Young, BMC Evol. Biol. 11, 235 (2011)], which acts as a bona fide Wnt5a-responsive element. Importantly, this phospho-dependent degradation is essential for Wnt5a-Ror modulation of cell migration. Collectively, this work establishes a Wnt5a-Ror cell morphogenetic cascade involving Pdzrn3 phosphorylation and degradation.
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Guasto A, Cormier-Daire V. Signaling Pathways in Bone Development and Their Related Skeletal Dysplasia. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4321. [PMID: 33919228 PMCID: PMC8122623 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone development is a tightly regulated process. Several integrated signaling pathways including HH, PTHrP, WNT, NOTCH, TGF-β, BMP, FGF and the transcription factors SOX9, RUNX2 and OSX are essential for proper skeletal development. Misregulation of these signaling pathways can cause a large spectrum of congenital conditions categorized as skeletal dysplasia. Since the signaling pathways involved in skeletal dysplasia interact at multiple levels and have a different role depending on the time of action (early or late in chondrogenesis and osteoblastogenesis), it is still difficult to precisely explain the physiopathological mechanisms of skeletal disorders. However, in recent years, significant progress has been made in elucidating the mechanisms of these signaling pathways and genotype-phenotype correlations have helped to elucidate their role in skeletogenesis. Here, we review the principal signaling pathways involved in bone development and their associated skeletal dysplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Guasto
- Imagine Institute, Université de Paris, Clinical Genetics, INSERM UMR 1163, Necker Enfants Malades Hospital, 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Valérie Cormier-Daire
- Imagine Institute, Université de Paris, Clinical Genetics, INSERM UMR 1163, Necker Enfants Malades Hospital, 75015 Paris, France;
- Centre de Référence Pour Les Maladies Osseuses Constitutionnelles, Service de Génétique Clinique, AP-HP, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, 75015 Paris, France
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Ma Y, Jing J, Feng J, Yuan Y, Wen Q, Han X, He J, Chen S, Ho TV, Chai Y. Ror2-mediated non-canonical Wnt signaling regulates Cdc42 and cell proliferation during tooth root development. Development 2021; 148:dev.196360. [PMID: 33323370 PMCID: PMC7847279 DOI: 10.1242/dev.196360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The control of size and shape is an important part of regulatory process during organogenesis. Tooth formation is a highly complex process that fine-tunes the size and shape of the tooth, which are crucial for its physiological functions. Each tooth consists of a crown and one or more roots. Despite comprehensive knowledge of the mechanism that regulates early tooth crown development, we have limited understanding of the mechanism regulating root patterning and size during development. Here, we show that Ror2-mediated non-canonical Wnt signaling in the dental mesenchyme plays a crucial role in cell proliferation, and thereby regulates root development size in mouse molars. Furthermore, Cdc42 acts as a potential downstream mediator of Ror2 signaling in root formation. Importantly, activation of Cdc42 can restore cell proliferation and partially rescue the root development size defects in Ror2 mutant mice. Collectively, our findings provide novel insights into the function of Ror2-mediated non-canonical Wnt signaling in regulating tooth morphogenesis, and suggest potential avenues for dental tissue engineering. Summary: The function of Ror2-mediated non-canonical Wnt signaling and its effect on Cdc42 activation is crucial in regulating progenitor cell proliferation, odontoblast differentiation and Hertwig's epithelial root sheath formation during tooth root morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Ma
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Department of Prosthodontics, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510055, PR China
| | - Junjun Jing
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jifan Feng
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Quan Wen
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Xia Han
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jinzhi He
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Shuo Chen
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Thach-Vu Ho
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Yang Chai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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10
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Kaissi AA, Kenis V, Shboul M, Grill F, Ganger R, Kircher SG. Tomographic Study of the Malformation Complex in Correlation With the Genotype in Patients With Robinow Syndrome: Review Article. J Investig Med High Impact Case Rep 2020; 8:2324709620911771. [PMID: 32172608 PMCID: PMC7074505 DOI: 10.1177/2324709620911771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 01/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to understand the etiology behind the abnormal craniofacial contour and other clinical presentations in a number of children with Robinow syndrome. Seven children with Robinow syndrome were enrolled in this study (autosomal recessive caused by homozygous mutations in the ROR2 gene on chromosome 9q22, and the autosomal dominant caused by heterozygous mutation in the WNT5A gene on chromosome 3p14). In the autosomal recessive (AR) group, the main clinical presentations were intellectual, disability, poor schooling achievement, episodes of headache/migraine, and poor fine motor coordinative skills, in addition to massive restrictions of the spine biomechanics causing effectively the development of kyposcoliosis and frequent bouts of respiratory infections. Three-dimensional reconstruction computed tomography scan revealed early closure of the metopic and the squamosal sutures of skull bones. Massive spinal malsegmentation and unsegmented spinal bar were noted in the AR group. In addition to severe mesomelia and camptodactyly, in the autosomal dominant (AD) group, no craniosynostosis but few Wormian bones and the spine showed limited malsegemetation, and no mesomelia or camptodactyly have been noted. We wish to stress that little information is available in the literature regarding the exact pathology of the cranial bones, axial, and appendicular malformations in correlation with the variable clinical presentations in patients with the 2 types of Robinow syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Al Kaissi
- Hanusch Hospital, Vienna, Austria
- Orthopedic Hospital of Speising, Vienna, Austria
| | - Vladimir Kenis
- Pediatric Orthopedic Institute n.a. H. Turner, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
| | | | - Franz Grill
- Orthopedic Hospital of Speising, Vienna, Austria
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Huybrechts Y, Mortier G, Boudin E, Van Hul W. WNT Signaling and Bone: Lessons From Skeletal Dysplasias and Disorders. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:165. [PMID: 32328030 PMCID: PMC7160326 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal dysplasias are a diverse group of heritable diseases affecting bone and cartilage growth. Throughout the years, the molecular defect underlying many of the diseases has been identified. These identifications led to novel insights in the mechanisms regulating bone and cartilage growth and homeostasis. One of the pathways that is clearly important during skeletal development and bone homeostasis is the Wingless and int-1 (WNT) signaling pathway. So far, three different WNT signaling pathways have been described, which are all activated by binding of the WNT ligands to the Frizzled (FZD) receptors. In this review, we discuss the skeletal disorders that are included in the latest nosology of skeletal disorders and that are caused by genetic defects involving the WNT signaling pathway. The number of skeletal disorders caused by defects in WNT signaling genes and the clinical phenotype associated with these disorders illustrate the importance of the WNT signaling pathway during skeletal development as well as later on in life to maintain bone mass. The knowledge gained through the identification of the genes underlying these monogenic conditions is used for the identification of novel therapeutic targets. For example, the genes underlying disorders with altered bone mass are all involved in the canonical WNT signaling pathway. Consequently, targeting this pathway is one of the major strategies to increase bone mass in patients with osteoporosis. In addition to increasing the insights in the pathways regulating skeletal development and bone homeostasis, knowledge of rare skeletal dysplasias can also be used to predict possible adverse effects of these novel drug targets. Therefore, this review gives an overview of the skeletal and extra-skeletal phenotype of the different skeletal disorders linked to the WNT signaling pathway.
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Li R, Liu T, Shi J, Luan W, Wei X, Yu J, Mao H, Liu P. ROR2 induces cell apoptosis via activating IRE1α/JNK/CHOP pathway in high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma in vitro and in vivo. J Transl Med 2019; 17:428. [PMID: 31878941 PMCID: PMC6933631 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-019-02178-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the most lethal cancer in female genital tumors. New disease markers and novel therapeutic strategies are urgent to identify considering the current status of treatment. Receptor tyrosine kinases family plays critical roles in embryo development and disease progression. However, ambivalent research conclusions of ROR2 make its role in tumor confused and the underlying mechanism is far from being understood. In this study, we sought to clarify the effects of ROR2 on high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC) cells and reveal the mechanism. Methods Immunohistochemistry assay and western-blot assay were used to detect proteins expression. ROR2 overexpression adenovirus and Lentivirus were used to create ROR2 overexpression model in vitro and in vivo, respectively. MTT assay, colony formation assay and transwell assay were used to measure the proliferation, invasion and migration ability of cancer cells. Flow cytometry assay was used to detect cell apoptosis rate. Whole transcriptome analysis was used to explore the differentially expressed genes between ROR2 overexpression group and negative control group. SiRNA targeted IRE1α was used to knockdown IRE1α. Kira6 was used to inhibit phosphorylation of IRE1α. Results Expression of ROR2 was significantly lower in HGSOC tissues compared to normal fallopian tube epithelium or ovarian surface epithelium tissues. In HGSOC cohort, patients with advanced stages or positive lymph nodes were prone to express lower ROR2. Overexpression of ROR2 could repress the proliferation of HGSOC cells and induce cell apoptosis. RNA sequencing analysis indicated that ROR2 overexpression could induce unfold protein response. The results were also confirmed by upregulation of BIP and phosphorylated IRE1α. Furthermore, pro-death factors like CHOP, phosphorylated JNK and phosphorylated c-Jun were also upregulated. IRE1α knockdown or Kira6 treatment could reverse the apoptosis induced by ROR2 overexpression. Finally, tumor xenograft experiment showed ROR2 overexpression could significantly repress the growth rate and volume of transplanted tumors. Conclusions Taken together, ROR2 downregulation was associated with HGSOC development and progression. ROR2 overexpression could repress cell proliferation and induce cell apoptosis in HGSOC cells. And the underlying mechanism might be the activation of IRE1α/JNK/CHOP pathway induced by ROR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Li
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, 107 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianfeng Liu
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Linyi People's Hospital, 27 Jiefang Road, Linyi, 276003, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Juanjuan Shi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Affiliated Tengzhou Center People's Hospital of Jining Medical University, 181 Xing Tan Road, Tengzhou, 277599, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenqing Luan
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, 107 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuan Wei
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, 107 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiangtao Yu
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, 107 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongluan Mao
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, 107 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Peishu Liu
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, 107 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
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Weissenböck M, Latham R, Nishita M, Wolff LI, Ho HYH, Minami Y, Hartmann C. Genetic interactions between Ror2 and Wnt9a, Ror1 and Wnt9a and Ror2 and Ror1: Phenotypic analysis of the limb skeleton and palate in compound mutants. Genes Cells 2019; 24:307-317. [PMID: 30801848 DOI: 10.1111/gtc.12676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the human receptor tyrosine kinase ROR2 are associated with Robinow syndrome (RRS) and brachydactyly type B1. Amongst others, the shortened limb phenotype associated with RRS is recapitulated in Ror2-/- mutant mice. In contrast, Ror1-/- mutant mice are viable and show no limb phenotype. Ror1-/- ;Ror2-/- double mutants are embryonic lethal, whereas double mutants containing a hypomorphic Ror1 allele (Ror1hyp ) survive up to birth and display a more severe shortened limb phenotype. Both orphan receptors have been shown to act as possible Wnt coreceptors and to mediate the Wnt5a signal. Here, we analyzed genetic interactions between the Wnt ligand, Wnt9a, and Ror2 or Ror1, as Wnt9a has also been implicated in skeletal development. Wnt9a-/- single mutants display a mild shortening of the long bones, whereas these are severely shortened in Ror2-/- mutants. Ror2-/- ;Wnt9a-/- double mutants displayed even more severely shortened long bones, and intermediate phenotypes were observed in compound Ror2;Wnt9a mutants. Long bones were also shorter in Ror1hyp/hyp ;Wnt9a-/- double mutants. In addition, Ror1hyp/hyp ;Wnt9a-/- double mutants displayed a secondary palate cleft phenotype, which was not present in the respective single mutants. Interestingly, 50% of compound mutant pups heterozygous for Ror2 and homozygous mutant for Ror1 also developed a secondary palate cleft phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Latham
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michiru Nishita
- Division of Cell Physiology, Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Lena Ingeborg Wolff
- Department of Bone and Skeletal Research, Medical Faculty, Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Hsin-Yi Henry Ho
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Davis, California
| | - Yasuhiro Minami
- Division of Cell Physiology, Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Christine Hartmann
- Department of Bone and Skeletal Research, Medical Faculty, Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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Yip RK, Chan D, Cheah KS. Mechanistic insights into skeletal development gained from genetic disorders. Curr Top Dev Biol 2019; 133:343-385. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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15
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Qin L, Lou G, Guo L, Zhang Y, Wang H, Wang L, Hou Q, Liu H, Li X, Liao S. Targeted next-generation sequencing-based molecular diagnosis of congenital hand malformations in Chinese population. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12721. [PMID: 30143665 PMCID: PMC6109141 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30940-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Congenital hand malformations is rare and characterized by hand deformities. It is highly heterogeneous, both clinically and genetically, which complicates the identification of causative genes and mutations. Recently, targeted next-generation (NGS) sequencing has been successfully used for the detection of heterogeneous diseases, and the use of NGS also has contributed significantly in evaluating the etiology of heterogeneous disease. Here, we employed targeted NGS to screen 248 genes involved in genetic skeletal disorders, including congenital hand malformations. Three pathogenic mutations located in the GJA1, ROR2 and TBX5 genes were detected in three large Chinese families with congenital hand malformations. Two novel mutations were reported, and a known causative mutation was verified in this Chinese population. This is also the first report that the same panel of targeted NGS was employed to perform molecular diagnosis of different subtypes of congenital hand malformations. Our study supported the application of a targeted NGS panel as an effective tool to detect the genetic cause for heterogeneous diseases in clinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Litao Qin
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Guiyu Lou
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Liangjie Guo
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Yuwei Zhang
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Hongdan Wang
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Li Wang
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Qiaofang Hou
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Hongyan Liu
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Xichuan Li
- Department of Immunology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China.
| | - Shixiu Liao
- Medical Genetic Institute of Henan Province, Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Genetic Diseases and Functional Genomics, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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Birgmeier J, Esplin ED, Jagadeesh KA, Guturu H, Wenger AM, Chaib H, Buckingham JA, Bejerano G, Bernstein JA. Biallelic loss‐of‐function
WNT5A
mutations in an infant with severe and atypical manifestations of Robinow syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2018; 176:1030-1036. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.38636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Edward D. Esplin
- Department of GeneticsStanford University School of Medicine, Stanford California
| | | | - Harendra Guturu
- Department of PediatricsStanford University School of Medicine, Stanford California
| | - Aaron M. Wenger
- Department of PediatricsStanford University School of Medicine, Stanford California
| | - Hassan Chaib
- Department of GeneticsStanford University School of Medicine, Stanford California
- Stanford Center for Genomics and Personalized MedicineStanford University, Stanford California
| | - Julia A. Buckingham
- Department of PediatricsStanford University School of Medicine, Stanford California
| | - Gill Bejerano
- Department of Computer ScienceStanford University, Stanford California
- Department of PediatricsStanford University School of Medicine, Stanford California
- Department of Developmental BiologyStanford University, Stanford California
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Ascensión AM, Arrospide-Elgarresta M, Izeta A, Araúzo-Bravo MJ. NaviSE: superenhancer navigator integrating epigenomics signal algebra. BMC Bioinformatics 2017; 18:296. [PMID: 28587674 PMCID: PMC5461685 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-017-1698-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Superenhancers are crucial structural genomic elements determining cell fate, and they are also involved in the determination of several diseases, such as cancer or neurodegeneration. Although there are pipelines which use independent pieces of software to predict the presence of superenhancers from genome-wide chromatin marks or DNA-interaction protein binding sites, there is not yet an integrated software tool that processes automatically algebra combinations of raw data sequencing into a comprehensive final annotated report of predicted superenhancers. Results We have developed NaviSE, a user-friendly streamlined tool which performs a fully-automated parallel processing of genome-wide epigenomics data from sequencing files into a final report, built with a comprehensive set of annotated files that are navigated through a graphic user interface dynamically generated by NaviSE. NaviSE also implements an ‘epigenomics signal algebra’ that allows the combination of multiple activation and repression epigenomics signals. NaviSE provides an interactive chromosomal landscaping of the locations of superenhancers, which can be navigated to obtain annotated information about superenhancer signal profile, associated genes, gene ontology enrichment analysis, motifs of transcription factor binding sites enriched in superenhancers, graphs of the metrics evaluating the superenhancers quality, protein-protein interaction networks and enriched metabolic pathways among other features. We have parallelised the most time-consuming tasks achieving a reduction up to 30% for a 15 CPUs machine. We have optimized the default parameters of NaviSE to facilitate its use. NaviSE allows different entry levels of data processing, from sra-fastq files to bed files; and unifies the processing of multiple replicates. NaviSE outperforms the more time-consuming processes required in a non-integrated pipeline. Alongside its high performance, NaviSE is able to provide biological insights, predicting cell type specific markers, such as SOX2 and ZIC3 in embryonic stem cells, CDK5R1 and REST in neurons and CD86 and TLR2 in monocytes. Conclusions NaviSE is a user-friendly streamlined solution for superenhancer analysis, annotation and navigation, requiring only basic computer and next generation sequencing knowledge. NaviSE binaries and documentation are available at: https://sourceforge.net/projects/navise-superenhancer/. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-017-1698-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M Ascensión
- Computational Biology and Systems Biomedicine, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, San Sebastián, 20014, Spain.,Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Bioengineering Area, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, San Sebastián, 20014, Spain.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, 48940, Spain
| | - Mikel Arrospide-Elgarresta
- Computational Biology and Systems Biomedicine, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, San Sebastián, 20014, Spain
| | - Ander Izeta
- Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Bioengineering Area, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, San Sebastián, 20014, Spain.
| | - Marcos J Araúzo-Bravo
- Computational Biology and Systems Biomedicine, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, San Sebastián, 20014, Spain. .,IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, 48013, Spain.
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19
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Ma SSQ, Srivastava S, Llamosas E, Hawkins NJ, Hesson LB, Ward RL, Ford CE. ROR2 is epigenetically inactivated in the early stages of colorectal neoplasia and is associated with proliferation and migration. BMC Cancer 2016; 16:508. [PMID: 27440078 PMCID: PMC4955198 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-2576-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colorectal cancer (CRC) is closely linked to Wnt signalling, with 94 % of cases exhibiting a Wnt related mutation. ROR2 is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is thought to repress β-catenin dependent Wnt signalling. Our study aims to determine if ROR2 is epigenetically silenced in CRC and determine if in vitro silencing of ROR2 potentiates Wnt signalling, and alters the proliferative, migratory or invasive potential of cells. METHODS ROR2 expression was examined in CRC cell lines and patient adenomas using qRT-PCR, while COBRA and bisulphite sequencing was used to analyse ROR2 promoter methylation. 258 patient primary tumour samples from publicly available databases were also examined for ROR2 expression and methylation. In addition, the functional effects of ROR2 modulation were investigated in HCT116 cells following ROR2 siRNA knockdown and in RKO and SW620 cells following ectopic ROR2 expression. RESULTS Reduced ROR2 expression was found to correlate with ROR2 promoter hypermethylation in colorectal cancer cell lines, carcinomas and adenomas. ROR2 expression was downregulated in 76.7 % (23/30) of CRC cell lines with increasing ROR2 promoter hypermethylation correlating with progressively lower expression. Analysis of 239 primary tumour samples from a publicly available cohort also found a significant correlation between reduced ROR2 expression and increased promoter methylation. Methylation analysis of 88 adenomas and 47 normal mucosa samples found greater percentage of adenoma samples to be methylated. Additional analysis also revealed that adenoma samples with reduced ROR2 expression also possessed ROR2 promoter hypermethylation. ROR2 knockdown in the CRC cell line HCT116 significantly decreased expression of the β-catenin independent Wnt targets genes JNK and NFATC1, increased cellular proliferation and migration but decreased invasion. When ROR2 was ectopically expressed in RKO and SW620 cells, there was no significant change to either cellular proliferation or migration. CONCLUSION ROR2 is frequently epigenetically inactivated by promoter hypermethylation in the early stages of colorectal neoplasia and this may contribute to colorectal cancer progression by increasing cellular proliferation and migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean S. Q. Ma
- />Metastasis Research Group, Adult Cancer Program, School of Women’s and Children’s Health, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Sameer Srivastava
- />Colorectal Cancer Group, Adult Cancer Program, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
- />Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, 211004 India
| | - Estelle Llamosas
- />Metastasis Research Group, Adult Cancer Program, School of Women’s and Children’s Health, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Nicholas J. Hawkins
- />Mayne Medical School, University of Queensland, 288 Herston Road, Herston, Brisbane St Lucia, Qld 4072 Australia
| | - Luke B. Hesson
- />Colorectal Cancer Group, Adult Cancer Program, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Robyn L. Ward
- />Colorectal Cancer Group, Adult Cancer Program, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Caroline E. Ford
- />Metastasis Research Group, Adult Cancer Program, School of Women’s and Children’s Health, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
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20
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Abstract
Ror2 is a signaling receptor for Wnt ligands that is known to play important roles in limb development, but having no essential roles known in adult tissues. Recent evidence has implicated Ror2 in mediating both canonical and non-canonical signaling pathways. Ror2 was initially found to be highly expressed in osteosarcoma and renal cell carcinomas, and has recently been found in an increasingly long list of cancers currently including melanoma, colon cancer, melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck, and breast cancer. In the majority of these cancer types, Ror2 expression is associated with more aggressive disease states, consistent with a role mediating Wnt signaling regardless of the canonical or noncanonical signal. Because of the pattern of tissue distribution, the association with high-risk diseases, and the cell surface localization of this receptor, Ror2 has been identified as a potential high value target for therapeutic development. However, the recent discovery that Ror2 may function through non-kinase activities challenges this strategy and opens up opportunities to target this important molecule through alternative means.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zufan Debebe
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
| | - W Kimryn Rathmell
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States; Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States; Department of Urology, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States; Department of Genetics, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States.
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21
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Shabani M, Naseri J, Shokri F. Receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 1: a novel target for cancer immunotherapy. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015; 19:941-55. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1025753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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22
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Holley RJ, Tai G, Williamson AJK, Taylor S, Cain SA, Richardson SM, Merry CLR, Whetton AD, Kielty CM, Canfield AE. Comparative quantification of the surfaceome of human multipotent mesenchymal progenitor cells. Stem Cell Reports 2015; 4:473-88. [PMID: 25684225 PMCID: PMC4375938 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2015.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Revised: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal progenitor cells have great therapeutic potential, yet incomplete characterization of their cell-surface interface limits their clinical exploitation. We have employed subcellular fractionation with quantitative discovery proteomics to define the cell-surface interface proteome of human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) and human umbilical cord perivascular cells (HUCPVCs). We compared cell-surface-enriched fractions from MSCs and HUCPVCs (three donors each) with adult mesenchymal fibroblasts using eight-channel isobaric-tagging mass spectrometry, yielding relative quantification on >6,000 proteins with high confidence. This approach identified 186 upregulated mesenchymal progenitor biomarkers. Validation of 10 of these markers, including ROR2, EPHA2, and PLXNA2, confirmed upregulated expression in mesenchymal progenitor populations and distinct roles in progenitor cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Our approach has delivered a cell-surface proteome repository that now enables improved selection and characterization of human mesenchymal progenitor populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Holley
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Guangping Tai
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Andrew J K Williamson
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Samuel Taylor
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Stuart A Cain
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Stephen M Richardson
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Catherine L R Merry
- Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Anthony D Whetton
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Cay M Kielty
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
| | - Ann E Canfield
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK.
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23
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A new mutation in the gene ROR2 causes brachydactyly type B1. Gene 2014; 547:106-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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24
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Malhotra D, Yang Y. Wnts' fashion statement: from body stature to dysplasia. BONEKEY REPORTS 2014; 3:541. [PMID: 24991404 DOI: 10.1038/bonekey.2014.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bone is constantly being made and remodeled to maintain bone volume and calcium homeostasis. Even small changes in the dosage, location and duration of int/Wingless (Wnt) signaling affect skeletal development and homeostasis. Wnt/β-catenin signaling controls cell fate determination, proliferation and survival by affecting a balance between bone-forming osteoblast and bone-resorbing osteoclast cell differentiation. During early skeletal development, Wnt/β-catenin signaling is required in directing mesenchymal progenitor cells toward the osteoblast lineage. Later, Wnt/β-catenin in chondrocytes of the growth plate promotes chondrocyte survival, hypertrophic differentiation and endochondral ossification. Gain- or loss-of-function mutations in the Wnt signaling components are causally linked to high or low bone mass in mice and humans. Inactivation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling leads to imbalance between bone formation and resorption because of accelerated osteoclastogenesis due to decline in the levels of osteoprotegerin (OPG) secreted by osteoblasts or directly via Frizzled 8 (Fzd8). In this review, we provide a landscape of the Wnt pathway components in influencing progenitor cell differentiation toward osteoblasts or osteoclasts under physiological conditions as well as pathological disorders resulting in various skeletal dysplasia syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepti Malhotra
- Genetic Disease Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yingzi Yang
- Genetic Disease Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, MD, USA
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25
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Roifman M, Marcelis CLM, Paton T, Marshall C, Silver R, Lohr JL, Yntema HG, Venselaar H, Kayserili H, van Bon B, Seaward G, Brunner HG, Chitayat D. De novo WNT5A-associated autosomal dominant Robinow syndrome suggests specificity of genotype and phenotype. Clin Genet 2014; 87:34-41. [PMID: 24716670 DOI: 10.1111/cge.12401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Robinow Syndrome (RS), a rare skeletal dysplasia syndrome, is characterized by dysmorphic features resembling a fetal face, mesomelic limb shortening, hypoplastic external genitalia in males, and renal and vertebral anomalies. Both autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive patterns of inheritance have been reported. Since the description of autosomal dominant Robinow Syndrome (ADRS; OMIM 180700) in 1969 by Meinhard Robinow and colleagues, the molecular etiology remained elusive until only recently. WNT5A was proposed to be the candidate gene for ADRS, as mutations were found in two affected families, one of those being the originally described index family. We report three families with RS caused by novel heterozygous WNT5A mutations, which were confirmed in the first family by whole exome sequencing, and in all by Sanger sequencing. To our knowledge, this is the largest number of published families with ADRS in whom a WNT5A mutation was identified. Families 1 and 2 are the first cases showing de novo inheritance in the affected family members and thus strengthen the evidence for WNT5A as the causative gene in ADRS. Finally, we propose WNT5A mutation specificity in ADRS, which may affect interactions with other proteins in the Wnt pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Roifman
- The Prenatal Diagnosis and Medical Genetics Program, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada; Division of Clinical and Metabolic Genetics, Department of Paediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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26
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Arora R, Altman E, Tran ND, Laird DJ. Novel domains of expression for orphan receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2 in the human and mouse reproductive system. Dev Dyn 2014; 243:1037-45. [PMID: 24753105 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The noncanonical Wnt receptor and tyrosine kinase Ror2 has been associated with recessive Robinow syndrome (RRS) and dominant brachydactyly type B1. The phenotypes of mouse mutants implicate Ror2 in the development of the heart, lungs, bone, and craniofacial structures, which are affected in RRS. Following a recently identified role of Ror2 in the migration of mouse primordial germ cells, we extensively characterized its expression throughout the fetal internal reproductive system and the postnatal ductal system. RESULTS We show that Ror2 gene products are present in the germ cells and somatic cells of the testis and the ovary of both the mouse and human fetus. In reproductive tract structures, we find that Ror2 is expressed in the mesonephros, developing Wolffian and Müllerian ducts, and later in their derivatives, the epididymal epithelium and uterine epithelium. CONCLUSIONS This study sets the stage to explore function for this tyrosine kinase receptor in novel regions of expression in the developing reproductive system in both mouse and human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ripla Arora
- Department of Ob/Gyn and Reproductive Sciences, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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27
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Green J, Nusse R, van Amerongen R. The role of Ryk and Ror receptor tyrosine kinases in Wnt signal transduction. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2014; 6:cshperspect.a009175. [PMID: 24370848 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a009175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases of the Ryk and Ror families were initially classified as orphan receptors because their ligands were unknown. They are now known to contain functional extracellular Wnt-binding domains and are implicated in Wnt-signal transduction in multiple species. Although their signaling mechanisms still remain to be resolved in detail, both Ryk and Ror control important developmental processes in different tissues. However, whereas many other Wnt-signaling responses affect cell proliferation and differentiation, Ryk and Ror are mostly associated with controlling processes that rely on the polarized migration of cells. Here we discuss what is currently known about the involvement of this exciting class of receptors in development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Green
- Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305
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28
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Hutson JM, Southwell BR, Li R, Lie G, Ismail K, Harisis G, Chen N. The regulation of testicular descent and the effects of cryptorchidism. Endocr Rev 2013; 34:725-52. [PMID: 23666148 DOI: 10.1210/er.2012-1089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The first half of this review examines the boundary between endocrinology and embryonic development, with the aim of highlighting the way hormones and signaling systems regulate the complex morphological changes to enable the intra-abdominal fetal testes to reach the scrotum. The genitoinguinal ligament, or gubernaculum, first enlarges to hold the testis near the groin, and then it develops limb-bud-like properties and migrates across the pubic region to reach the scrotum. Recent advances show key roles for insulin-like hormone 3 in the first step, with androgen and the genitofemoral nerve involved in the second step. The mammary line may also be involved in initiating the migration. The key events in early postnatal germ cell development are then reviewed because there is mounting evidence for this to be crucial in preventing infertility and malignancy later in life. We review the recent advances in what is known about the etiology of cryptorchidism and summarize the syndromes where a specific molecular cause has been found. Finally, we cover the recent literature on timing of surgery, the issues around acquired cryptorchidism, and the limited role of hormone therapy. We conclude with some observations about the differences between animal models and baby boys with cryptorchidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Hutson
- Urology Department, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia.
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Yang T, Bassuk AG, Fritzsch B. Prickle1 stunts limb growth through alteration of cell polarity and gene expression. Dev Dyn 2013; 242:1293-306. [PMID: 23913870 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wnt/PCP signaling plays a critical role in multiple developmental processes, including limb development. Wnt5a, a ligand of the PCP pathway, signals through the Ror2/Vangl2 or the Vangl2/Ryk complex to regulate limb development along the proximal-distal axis in mice. Based on the interaction between Van Gogh and Prickle in Drosophila, we hypothesized the vertebrate Prickle1 has a similar function as Vangl2 in limb development. RESULTS We show Prickle1 is expressed in the skeletal condensates that will differentiate into chondrocytes and later form bones. Disrupted Prickle1 function in Prickle1(C251X/C251X) mouse mutants alters expression of genes such as Bmp4, Fgf8, Vangl2, and Wnt5a. These expression changes correlate with shorter and wider bones in the limbs and loss of one phalangeal segment in digits 2-5 of Prickle1C251X mutants. These growth defects along the proximal-distal axis are also associated with increased cell death in the growing digit tip, reduced cell death in the interdigital membrane, and disrupted chondrocyte polarity. CONCLUSIONS We suggest Prickle1 is part of the Wnt5a/PCP signaling, regulating cell polarity and affecting expression of multiple factors to stunt limb growth through altered patterns of gene expression, including the PCP genes Wnt5a and Vangl2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Yang
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
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30
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Wnt signaling through the Ror receptor in the nervous system. Mol Neurobiol 2013; 49:303-15. [PMID: 23990374 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-013-8520-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor (Ror) proteins are conserved tyrosine kinase receptors that play roles in a variety of cellular processes that pattern tissues and organs during vertebrate and invertebrate development. Ror signaling is required for skeleton and neuronal development and modulates cell migration, cell polarity, and convergent extension. Ror has also been implicated in two human skeletal disorders, brachydactyly type B and Robinow syndrome. Rors are widely expressed during metazoan development including domains in the nervous system. Here, we review recent progress in understanding the roles of the Ror receptors in neuronal migration, axonal pruning, axon guidance, and synaptic plasticity. The processes by which Ror signaling execute these diverse roles are still largely unknown, but they likely converge on cytoskeletal remodeling. In multiple species, Rors have been shown to act as Wnt receptors signaling via novel non-canonical Wnt pathways mediated in some tissues by the adapter protein disheveled and the non-receptor tyrosine kinase Src. Rors can either activate or repress Wnt target expression depending on the cellular context and can also modulate signal transduction by sequestering Wnt ligands away from their signaling receptors. Future challenges include the identification of signaling components of the Ror pathways and bettering our understanding of the roles of these pleiotropic receptors in patterning the nervous system.
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Abstract
Planar cell polarity (PCP), a process controlling coordinated, uniformly polarized cellular behaviors in a field of cells, has been identified to be critically required for many fundamental developmental processes. However, a global directional cue that establishes PCP in a three-dimensional tissue or organ with respect to the body axes remains elusive. In vertebrate, while Wnt-secreted signaling molecules have been implicated in regulating PCP in a β-catenin-independent manner, whether they function permissively or act as a global cue to convey directional information is not clearly defined. In addition, the underlying molecular mechanism by which Wnt signal is transduced to core PCP proteins is largely unknown. In this chapter, I review the roles of Wnt signaling in regulating PCP during vertebrate development and update our knowledge of its regulatory mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Gao
- National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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Ford CE, Qian Ma SS, Quadir A, Ward RL. The dual role of the novel Wnt receptor tyrosine kinase, ROR2, in human carcinogenesis. Int J Cancer 2013; 133:779-87. [PMID: 23233346 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.27984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The Wnt signaling pathway is involved in the development and progression of many human cancers, yet attempts to target the pathway therapeutically have been disappointing to date. The recent discovery that the ROR2 receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) is a novel Wnt receptor provides the potential to target the non-canonical Wnt pathway for cancer treatments. As a member of the RTK superfamily of surface receptors ROR2 appears to possess dual roles as a tumor suppressor or activator depending on tumor type. This review will explore the dual role of ROR2 in tumorigenesis and provide an up to date analysis of current literature in this rapidly expanding field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline E Ford
- Wnt Signaling & Metastasis Group, Lowy Cancer Research Centre and Prince of Wales Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Australia.
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Lai SS, Xue B, Yang Y, Zhao L, Chu CS, Hao JY, Wen CJ. Ror2-Src signaling in metastasis of mouse melanoma cells is inhibited by NRAGE. Cancer Genet 2012; 205:552-62. [PMID: 23142633 DOI: 10.1016/j.cancergen.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Revised: 09/05/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) Ror2 plays important roles in developmental morphogenesis and mediates the filopodia formation in Wnt5a-induced cell migration. However, the function of Ror2 in noncanonical Wnt signaling resulting in cancer metastasis is largely unknown. Here, we show that Ror2 expression is higher in the highly metastatic murine B16-BL6 melanoma cells than in the low metastatic variant B16 cells. Overexpression of Ror2 increases the metastasis ability of B16 cells, and knockdown of Ror2 reduces the migration ability of B16-BL6 cells. Furthermore, the inhibition of Src kinase activity is critical for the Ror2-mediated cell migration upon Wnt5a treatment. The C-terminus of Ror2, which is deleted in brachydactyly type B (BDB), is essential for the mutual interaction with the SH1 domain of Src. Intriguingly, the Neurotrophin receptor-interacting MAGE homologue (NRAGE), which, as we previously reported, can remodel the cellular skeleton and inhibit cell-cell adhesion and metastasis of melanoma and pancreatic cancer, sharply blocks the interaction between Src and Ror2 and inhibits Ror2-mediated B16 cell migration by decreasing the activity of Src and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Our data show that Ror2 is a potential factor in the tumorigenesis and metastasis in a Src-dependent manner that is negatively regulated by NRAGE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan-Shan Lai
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, Nanjing Normal University, and Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
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Barrow J. Wnt/planar cell polarity signaling: an important mechanism to coordinate growth and patterning in the limb. Organogenesis 2012; 7:260-6. [PMID: 22198433 DOI: 10.4161/org.7.4.19049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The limb is one of the premier models for studying how a simple embryonic anlage develops into complex three-dimensional form. One of the key issues in the limb field has been to determine how the limb becomes patterned along its proximal (shoulder/hip) to distal (digits) axis. For decades it has been known that the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) plays a crucial role in distal outgrowth and patterning of the vertebrate embryonic limb. Most studies have explored the relationship between the AER and the progressive assignment of cell fates to mesenchyme along the proximal to distal (PD) axis. Comparatively few, however, have examined the additional role of the AER to regulate distal outgrowth of the limb and how this growth may also influence pattern along the PD axis. Here, I will review key studies that explore the role of growth in limb development. In particular, I will focus on a recent flurry of papers that examine the role of the Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway in regulating directed growth of the limb mesenchyme. Finally, I will discuss a potential mechanism that relates the AER to the Wnt/PCP pathway and how directed growth can play a role in shaping the limb along the PD axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery Barrow
- Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA.
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35
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Ermakov S, Trofimov S, Malkin I, Livshits G. A significant association exists between receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 2 gene variants and the OPG/RANKL ratio in human plasma. Osteoporos Int 2012; 23:1899-907. [PMID: 22057548 DOI: 10.1007/s00198-011-1820-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY There is a paucity of studies investigating association between ROR2 gene variants and osteoporosis and osteoarthritis-related phenotypes. The published literature suggests that osteoprotegerin (OPG) and receptor activator of nuclear factor-kB ligand (RANKL) are essential for bone metabolism and correlate with osteoarthritis manifestation and progression. The present study provides evidence of the significant association between ROR2 variants and the OPG/RANKL ratio in human plasma. The present results also suggest significant association between ROR2 polymorphisms and severity of radiographic hand osteoarthritis. INTRODUCTION Despite the importance of the ROR-2 in skeletal physiology, there is a paucity of studies investigating the potential association of ROR2 gene variants with phenotypes relevant to osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. On the other hand, there is a considerable body of literature suggesting that OPG and RANKL and their ratio (OPG/RANKL) are essential for regulating bone resorption. This is also correlated with osteoarthritis manifestation and progression. The present study therefore examines whether ROR2 polymorphisms may be associated with the OPG/RANKL ratio and hand osteoarthritis (HOA). METHODS The study was conducted in a family-based sample of 1,515 Caucasian individuals, assessed for radiographic hand osteoarthritis, using the Kellgren/Lawrence score. Of these, 865 individuals were genotyped for 19 SNPs, relatively equally covering the ROR2 locus, and their plasma levels of OPG and RANKL were assayed. The association between the selected SNPs and OPG, along with the OPG/RANKL ratio and HOA, was explored using the pedigree disequilibrium test. RESULTS Of the total of 57 tests, 16 nominally significant results (p < 0.05) were obtained, which is considerably more than the three normally expected for type I error. The significant association signals for all three phenotypes were mapped to the intron 1 region. The most significant results were detected between OPG/RANKL and rs7048756 (p < 0.0005) and between adjacent rs4744107 and Kellgren/Lawrence score (p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS The present study provides evidence of the significant association between ROR2 variants and the OPG/RANKL ratio in human plasma and also suggests ROR2 association with HOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ermakov
- Human Population Biology Research Unit, Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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36
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Rebagay G, Yan S, Liu C, Cheung NK. ROR1 and ROR2 in Human Malignancies: Potentials for Targeted Therapy. Front Oncol 2012; 2:34. [PMID: 22655270 PMCID: PMC3356025 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2012.00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted therapies require cellular protein expression that meets specific requirements that will maximize effectiveness, minimize off-target toxicities, and provide an opportunity for a therapeutic effect. The receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptors (ROR) are possible targets for therapy that may meet such requirements. RORs are transmembrane proteins that are part of the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family. The RORs have been shown to play a role in tumor-like behavior, such as cell migration and cell invasiveness and are normally not expressed in normal adult tissue. As part of the large effort in target discovery, ROR proteins have recently been found to be expressed in human cancers. Their unique expression profiles may provide a novel class of therapeutic targets for small molecules against the kinase or for antibody-based therapies against these receptors. Being restricted on tumor cells and not on most normal tissues, RORs are excellent targets for the treatment of minimal residual disease, the final hurdle in the curative approach to many cancers, including solid tumors such as neuroblastoma. In this review, we summarize the biology of RORs as they relate to human cancer, and highlight the therapeutic approaches directed toward them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilly Rebagay
- Department of Pediatrics, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center New York, NY, USA
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37
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Lu BJ, Wang YQ, Wei XJ, Rong LQ, Wei D, Yan CM, Wang DJ, Sun JY. Expression of WNT-5a and ROR2 correlates with disease severity in osteosarcoma. Mol Med Rep 2012; 5:1033-6. [PMID: 22293903 PMCID: PMC3493076 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2012.772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteosarcoma, a common malignancy primarily affecting children, generally has a poor prognosis. Novel diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic markers are required to ameliorate the negative outcomes of this disease. We investigated two potential markers, WNT-5a and ROR2, which are hypothesized to dysregulate WNT signaling pathways to promote tumorigenesis in other types of cancer. We investigated WNT-5a and ROR2 expression using immunohistochemistry in 42 osteosarcoma and 12 osteochondroma specimens, and compared the expression of these proteins with one another as well as with clinicopathological parameters. WNT-5a was detected in 34/42 (81.0%) cases and ROR2 was detected in 31/42 (73.8%) cases, significantly higher than in osteochondroma (16.7 and 25.0%, respectively; both P<0.05). Expression of these proteins was positively correlated (r=0.552, P<0.05). Furthermore, expression of WNT-5a and ROR2 was both correlated with Enneking surgical stage and tumor metastasis (P<0.05), but not with patient gender, age or pathological type. Thus, WNT-5a and ROR2 were more highly expressed in more severe disease states, and therefore may play a coordinated role in the occurrence and progression of osteosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei-Ji Lu
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215006, PR China
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38
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White SM, Fahey M. Report of a further family with dominant deafness-onychodystrophy (DDOD) syndrome. Am J Med Genet A 2012; 155A:2512-5. [PMID: 21998865 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.34184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Deafness and onychodystrophy is a presumed autosomal dominant condition previously reported in five families. We report on a three-generation family with three affected members with absent finger and toenails, finger-like thumbs, and severe sensorineural deafness. In the hands, the first and fifth digits had absent nails and bulbous swelling of the distal phalanx. The second, third, and fourth digits were relatively spared. In the feet,there were hypoplastic great toenails and absent nails on second to fifth toes. Intelligence was normal. In addition to deafness and onychodystrophy, other features in this family included subtle facial dysmorphism in two individuals, cutis aplasia in one individual, epilepsy in one individual, and sudden infant death in two family members, one of whom had deafness and onychodystrophy and one who did not. A full autopsy of both infants did not reveal a cause. SNP microarray analysis of one family member showed no evidence of copy number change. This family's condition fits within the spectrum of dominant deafness-onychodystrophy syndrome (DDOD) and further characterises this rare condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M White
- Genetic Health Services Victoria, Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, Australia.
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39
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Topczewski J, Dale RM, Sisson BE. Planar cell polarity signaling in craniofacial development. Organogenesis 2011; 7:255-9. [PMID: 22134372 DOI: 10.4161/org.7.4.18797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Out of the several signaling pathways controlling craniofacial development, the role of planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling is relatively poorly understood. This pathway, originally identified as a mechanism to maintain cell polarity within the epithelial cells of the Drosophila wing, has been linked to the proper development of a wide variety of tissues in vertebrates and invertebrates. While many of the pathway members are conserved, it appears that some of the members of the pathway act in a tissue-specific manner. Here, we discuss the role of this pathway in vertebrate craniofacial development, highlighting cranial neural crest migration, skull and palate formation and the role of non-traditional modulators of PCP signaling within this developmental process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Topczewski
- Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Memorial Research Center, Chicago, IL, USA.
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40
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Mutation analysis of the pathogenic gene in a Chinese family with Brachydactyly type B1. HEREDITAS (BEIJING) 2011; 33:147-52. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1005.2011.00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Wang B, Sinha T, Jiao K, Serra R, Wang J. Disruption of PCP signaling causes limb morphogenesis and skeletal defects and may underlie Robinow syndrome and brachydactyly type B. Hum Mol Genet 2010; 20:271-85. [PMID: 20962035 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddq462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Brachydactyly type B (BDB1) and Robinow syndrome (RRS) are two skeletal disorders caused by mutations in ROR2, a co-receptor of Wnt5a. Wnt5a/Ror2 can activate multiple branches of non-canonical Wnt signaling, but it is unclear which branch(es) mediates Wnt5a/Ror2 function in limb skeletal development. Here, we provide evidence implicating the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway as the downstream component of Wnt5a in the limb. We show that a mutation in the mouse PCP gene Vangl2 causes digit defects resembling the clinical phenotypes in BDB1, including loss of phalanges. Halving the dosage of Wnt5a in Vangl2 mutants enhances the severity and penetrance of the digit defects and causes long bone defects reminiscent of RRS, suggesting that Wnt5a and Vangl2 function in the same pathway and disruption of PCP signaling may underlie both BDB1 and RRS. Consistent with a role for PCP signaling in tissue morphogenesis, mutation of Vangl2 alters the shape and dimensions of early limb buds: the width and thickness are increased, whereas the length is decreased. The digit pre-chondrogenic condensates also become wider, thicker and shorter. Interestingly, altered limb bud dimensions in Vangl2 mutants also affect limb growth by perturbing the signaling network that regulates the balance between Fgf and Bmp signaling. Halving the dosage of Bmp4 partially suppresses the loss of phalanges in Vangl2 mutants, supporting the hypothesis that an aberrant increase in Bmp signaling is the cause of the brachydactyly defect. These findings provide novel insight into the signaling mechanisms of Wnt5a/Ror2 and the pathogenesis in BDB1 and RRS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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42
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Ali BR, Xu H, Akawi NA, John A, Karuvantevida NS, Langer R, Al-Gazali L, Leitinger B. Trafficking defects and loss of ligand binding are the underlying causes of all reported DDR2 missense mutations found in SMED-SL patients. Hum Mol Genet 2010; 19:2239-50. [PMID: 20223752 PMCID: PMC2865377 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddq103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Spondylo-meta-epiphyseal dysplasia (SMED) with short limbs and abnormal calcifications (SMED-SL) is a rare, autosomal recessive human growth disorder, characterized by disproportionate short stature, short limbs, short broad fingers, abnormal metaphyses and epiphyses, platyspondyly and premature calcifications. Recently, three missense mutations and one splice-site mutation in the DDR2 gene were identified as causative genetic defects for SMED-SL, but the underlying cellular and biochemical mechanisms were not explored. Here we report a novel DDR2 missense mutation, c.337G>A (p.E113K), that causes SMED-SL in two siblings in the United Arab Emirates. Another DDR2 missense mutation, c.2254C>T (p.R752C), matching one of the previously reported SMED-SL mutations, was found in a second affected family. DDR2 is a plasma membrane receptor tyrosine kinase that functions as a collagen receptor. We expressed DDR2 constructs with the identified point mutations in human cell lines and evaluated their localization and functional properties. We found that all SMED-SL missense mutants were defective in collagen-induced receptor activation and that the three previously reported mutants (p.T713I, p.I726R and p.R752C) were retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. The novel mutant (p.E113K), in contrast, trafficked normally, like wild-type DDR2, but failed to bind collagen. This finding is in agreement with our recent structural data identifying Glu113 as an important amino acid in the DDR2 ligand-binding site. Our data thus demonstrate that SMED-SL can result from at least two different loss-of-function mechanisms: namely defects in DDR2 targeting to the plasma membrane or the loss of its ligand-binding activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassam R Ali
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
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Minami Y, Oishi I, Endo M, Nishita M. Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases in noncanonical Wnt signaling: their implications in developmental morphogenesis and human diseases. Dev Dyn 2010; 239:1-15. [PMID: 19530173 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ror-family receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play crucial roles in the development of various organs and tissues. In mammals, Ror2, a member of the Ror-family RTKs, has been shown to act as a receptor or coreceptor for Wnt5a to mediate noncanonical Wnt signaling. Ror2- and Wnt5a-deficient mice exhibit similar abnormalities during developmental morphogenesis, reflecting their defects in convergent extension movements and planar cell polarity, characteristic features mediated by noncanonical Wnt signaling. Furthermore, mutations within the human Ror2 gene are responsible for the genetic skeletal disorders dominant brachydactyly type B and recessive Robinow syndrome. Accumulating evidence demonstrate that Ror2 mediates noncanonical Wnt5a signaling by inhibiting the beta-catenin-TCF pathway and activating the Wnt/JNK pathway that results in polarized cell migration. In this article, we review recent progress in understanding the roles of noncanonical Wnt5a/Ror2 signaling in developmental morphogenesis and in human diseases, including heritable skeletal disorders and tumor invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Minami
- Division of Cell Physiology, Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan.
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Ozbek MN, Uslu AB, Onenli-Mungan N, Yuksel B, Pohlenz J, Topaloglu AK. Thyroid peroxidase gene mutations causing congenital hypothyroidism in three Turkish families. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2009; 22:1033-9. [PMID: 20101889 DOI: 10.1515/jpem.2009.22.11.1033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In Turkey congenital hypothyroidism (CH) occurs with a prevalence of one in 2,736 newborns while the worldwide incidence is one in 3,000-4,000 newborns. 85-90% of these cases are due to dysgenesis of the thyroid gland, whereas defects in thyroid hormone synthesis account for 10-15%. The majority of patients with dyshormonogenesis have a defect in thyroid peroxidase (TPO). To date, more than 60 different mutations have been described in the TPO gene, mostly single nucleotide substitutions. Five children from three consanguineous families were diagnosed with CH on the basis of clinical symptoms and signs--goiter, macroglossia and prolonged jaundice at newborn age. Two different mutations in the TPO gene were identified. Affected children in families I and II had a nonsense mutation in exon 10 (R540X). Genotyping of polymorphic markers within the TPO gene revealed that these families shared a common haplotype, suggesting a founder effect. In the third family, a novel mutation (G319R) in exon 8 was identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehmet Nuri Ozbek
- Cukurova University, Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, Balcali, Adana, Turkey
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45
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Mikels A, Minami Y, Nusse R. Ror2 receptor requires tyrosine kinase activity to mediate Wnt5A signaling. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:30167-76. [PMID: 19720827 PMCID: PMC2781572 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.041715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The Wnts include a large family of secreted proteins that serve as important signals during embryonic development and adult homeostasis. In the most well understood Wnt signaling pathway, Wnt binding to Frizzled and low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein induces β-catenin protein stabilization and entry into the nucleus, resulting in changes in target gene transcription. Emerging evidence suggests that Wnt5a can inhibit Wnt/β-catenin signaling through interaction with the receptor Ror2. The Ror2 protein belongs to the receptor tyrosine kinase superfamily and contains several recognizable structural motifs. However, limited information is available regarding which specific domains are required for the inhibitory signaling activity of Wnt5a. Through mutation and deletion analysis, we have analyzed which specific domains and residues, including those necessary for tyrosine kinase activity, mediate the Wnt5a signal. To determine whether Ror2 can inhibit canonical Wnt signaling in vivo, we examined the effect of Ror2 loss on the expression of the Wnt reporter Axin2LacZ, finding increased reporter activity in Ror2 null mice, demonstrating that Ror2 can also inhibit Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the context of intact tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Mikels
- Department of Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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46
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Schwarzer W, Witte F, Rajab A, Mundlos S, Stricker S. A gradient of ROR2 protein stability and membrane localization confers brachydactyly type B or Robinow syndrome phenotypes. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:4013-21. [PMID: 19640924 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in ROR2 cause dominant brachydactyly type B (BDB1) or recessive Robinow syndrome (RRS), each characterized by a distinct combination of phenotypic features. We here report a novel nonsense mutation in ROR2 (c.1324C>T; p.R441X) causing intracellular protein truncation in a patient exhibiting features of RRS in conjunction with severe recessive brachydactyly. The mutation is located at the same position as a previously described frame shift mutation causing dominant BDB1. To investigate the apparent discrepancy in phenotypic outcome, we analysed ROR2 protein stability and distribution in stably transfected cell lines expressing exact copies of several human RRS and BDB1 intracellular mutations. RRS mutant proteins were less abundant and retained intracellularly, although BDB1 mutants were stable and predominantly located at the cell membrane. The p.R441X mutation showed an intermediate pattern with membrane localization but also high endoplasmic reticulum retention. Furthermore, we observed a correlation between the severity of BDB1, the location of the mutation, and the amount of membrane-associated ROR2. Membrane protein fraction quantification revealed a gradient of distribution and stability correlating with the clinical phenotypes. This gradual model was confirmed by crossing mouse models for RRS and BDB1, yielding double heterozygous animals that exhibited an intermediate phenotype. We propose a model in which the RRS versus the BDB1 phenotype is determined by the relative degree of protein retention/degradation and the amount of mutant protein reaching the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wibke Schwarzer
- Max Planck-Institute for Molecular Genetics, FG Development & Disease, Berlin, Germany
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47
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Morioka K, Tanikawa C, Ochi K, Daigo Y, Katagiri T, Kawano H, Kawaguchi H, Myoui A, Yoshikawa H, Naka N, Araki N, Kudawara I, Ieguchi M, Nakamura K, Nakamura Y, Matsuda K. Orphan receptor tyrosine kinase ROR2 as a potential therapeutic target for osteosarcoma. Cancer Sci 2009; 100:1227-33. [PMID: 19486338 PMCID: PMC11158182 DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2009.01165.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2008] [Revised: 02/28/2009] [Accepted: 03/12/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is the most prevalent bone malignant tumor in children and adolescents, and displays heterogeneous histology and high propensity for distant metastasis. Although adjuvant chemotherapy remarkably improved treatment outcome over the past few decades, prognosis for osteosarcoma patients with pulmonary metastasis is still unsatisfactory. To identify novel therapeutic targets for osteosarcoma, we investigated the gene expression profile of osteosarcomas by cDNA microarray analysis and found transactivation of receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 2 (ROR2) expression in the majority of osteosarcoma samples. Treatment of osteosarcoma cell lines with siRNA against ROR2 significantly inhibited cell proliferation and migration. We also identified wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 5B (WNT5B) as a putative ROR2 ligand and that the physiological interaction of WNT5B and ROR2 could enhance cell migration, indicating the possible roles of ROR2 and WNT5B in the metastatic property of osteosarcoma cells. Taken together, our findings revealed that the WNT5B/ROR2 signaling pathway is a promising therapeutic target for osteosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhito Morioka
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Human Genome Center, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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48
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Lv D, Luo Y, Yang W, Cao L, Wen Y, Zhao X, Sun M, Lo WHY, Zhang X. A novel single-base deletion in ROR2 causes atypical brachydactyly type B1 with cutaneous syndactyly in a large Chinese family. J Hum Genet 2009; 54:422-5. [DOI: 10.1038/jhg.2009.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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49
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Coman D, Irving M, Kannu P, Jaeken J, Savarirayan R. The skeletal manifestations of the congenital disorders of glycosylation. Clin Genet 2008; 73:507-15. [PMID: 18462449 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2008.01015.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) are a rapidly expanding disease group with protean presentations. Specific end-organ involvement leads to significant morbidity and mortality, and the skeletal manifestations are often not appreciated, apart from the common association of osteopaenia with CDG-Ia. We performed a literature review of all documented skeletal manifestations in reported CDG patients, revealing a diverse range of skeletal phenotypes. We discuss the possible underlying mechanisms of these skeletal manifestations observed in CDG that are important and frequently under-recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Coman
- Genetic Health Services Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
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50
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Burgess R, Millar ID, Leroy BP, Urquhart JE, Fearon IM, De Baere E, Brown PD, Robson AG, Wright GA, Kestelyn P, Holder GE, Webster AR, Manson FDC, Black GCM. Biallelic mutation of BEST1 causes a distinct retinopathy in humans. Am J Hum Genet 2008; 82:19-31. [PMID: 18179881 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2007] [Revised: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 08/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a distinct retinal disorder, autosomal-recessive bestrophinopathy (ARB), that is consequent upon biallelic mutation in BEST1 and is associated with central visual loss, a characteristic retinopathy, an absent electro-oculogram light rise, and a reduced electroretinogram. Heterozygous mutations in BEST1 have previously been found to cause the two dominantly inherited disorders, Best macular dystrophy and autosomal-dominant vitreoretinochoroidopathy. The transmembrane protein bestrophin-1, encoded by BEST1, is located at the basolateral membrane of the retinal pigment epithelium in which it probably functions as a Cl(-) channel. We sequenced BEST1 in five families, identifying DNA variants in each of ten alleles. These encoded six different missense variants and one nonsense variant. The alleles segregated appropriately for a recessive disorder in each family. No clinical or electrophysiological abnormalities were identified in any heterozygotes. We conducted whole-cell patch-clamping of HEK293 cells transfected with bestrophin-1 to measure the Cl(-) current. Two ARB missense isoforms severely reduced channel activity. However, unlike two other alleles previously associated with Best disease, cotransfection with wild-type bestrophin-1 did not impair the formation of active wild-type bestrophin-1 channels, consistent with the recessive nature of the condition. We propose that ARB is the null phenotype of bestrophin-1 in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary Burgess
- Academic Unit of Medical Genetics and Regional Genetics Service, St. Mary's Hospital, Hathersage Road, Manchester M13 0JH, UK
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