Proliferation assay on a silicon chip applicable for tumors extirpated from mammalians

Equivalence framework for an age-structured multistage representation of the cell cycle

We develop theoretical equivalences between stochastic and deterministic models for populations of individual cells stratified by age. Specifically, we develop a hierarchical system of equations describing the full dynamics of an age-structured multistage Markov process for approximating cell cycle time distributions. We further demonstrate that the resulting mean behavior is equivalent, over large timescales, to the classical McKendrick-von Foerster integropartial differential equation. We conclude by extending this framework to a spatial context, facilitating the modeling of traveling wave phenomena and cell-mediated pattern formation. More generally, this methodology may be extended to myriad reaction-diffusion processes for which the age of individuals is relevant to the dynamics.

Electrochemical Biosensing System for Single Cells, Cellular Aggregates and Microenvironments

Applications of electrochemical biosensing for surveying intact cells and tissues have been focus of attention. Two experimental approaches have been used when performing amperometric measurements on biological cells, the stylus-type microelectrode probes and the electrode-integrated microdevices based on lithographic technologies. For the probe scanning approach, various types of microsensors were developed to monitor localized physical or chemical natures at a variety of surfaces in situ under wet conditions. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has been applied for monitoring local oxygen, enzyme activity, and collection of transcripts. For the non-scanning type of approach, electrode array devices allow very rapid response, parallel monitoring, and multi-analyte assay. Sveral topics of on-chip-culture system were introduced especially concerning on gene expression monitoring by reporter system and reconstruction of in vivo-like nature by controlling microenvironments. Electrochemical reporter assay has been demonstrated to monitor the gene expression process of the gene-modified cultured cells. Long-term monitoring of cellular function of spheroids and three dimensionally-cultured cells were carried out by controlling microenvironments on the cellular chip.

Perfusable Vascular Network with a Tissue Model in a Microfluidic Device

A spheroid (a multicellular aggregate) is regarded as a good model of living tissues in the human body. Despite the significant advancement in the spheroid cultures, a perfusable vascular network in the spheroids remains a critical challenge for long-term culture required to maintain and develop their functions, such as protein expressions and morphogenesis. The protocol presents a novel method to integrate a perfusable vascular network within the spheroid in a microfluidic device. To induce a perfusable vascular network in the spheroid, angiogenic sprouts connected to microchannels were guided to the spheroid by utilizing angiogenic factors from human lung fibroblasts cultured in the spheroid. The angiogenic sprouts reached the spheroid, merged with the endothelial cells co-cultured in the spheroid, and formed a continuous vascular network. The vascular network could perfuse the interior of the spheroid without any leakage. The constructed vascular network may be further used as a route for supply of nutrients and removal of waste products, mimicking blood circulation in vivo. The method provides a new platform in spheroid culture toward better recapitulation of living tissues.

Scanning electrochemical microscopy: an analytical perspective

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) has evolved from an electrochemical specialist tool to a broadly used electroanalytical surface technique, which has experienced exciting developments for nanoscale electrochemical studies in recent years. Several companies now offer commercial instruments, and SECM has been used in a broad range of applications. SECM research is frequently interdisciplinary, bridging areas ranging from electrochemistry, nanotechnology, and materials science to biomedical research. Although SECM is considered a modern electroanalytical technique, it appears that less attention is paid to so-called analytical figures of merit, which are essential also in electroanalytical chemistry. Besides instrumental developments, this review focuses on aspects such as reliability, repeatability, and reproducibility of SECM data. The review is intended to spark discussion within the community on this topic, but also to raise awareness of the challenges faced during the evaluation of quantitative SECM data.

Keratinocyte-releasable factors increased the expression of MMP1 and MMP3 in co-cultured fibroblasts under both 2D and 3D culture conditions

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are key elements in extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation and scar remodeling during the wound-healing process. Our previous data revealed that keratinocyte-releasable factors significantly increased the expression of fibroblast MMPs in monolayer-cultured fibroblasts. In this study, we analyzed the differences in the MMP expressions of fibroblasts in a three-dimensional fibroblast-populated collagen gel (3D FPCG) from that in a two-dimensional monolayer-cultured fibroblasts when both co-cultured with keratinocytes. Differential mRNA and protein expression of fibroblasts were examined by microarray, RT-PCR, and western blot. Our results showed that fibroblasts co-cultured with keratinocytes in a 3D FPCG expressed significantly higher MMP1 and MMP3 at the gene and protein levels. Due to the physiological advantages of a 3D FPCG model to a 2D system, we concluded that the 3D FPCG model may provide a better means of understanding the fibroblast-keratinocyte cross-talk during the wound-healing process.

Advances in the application of scanning electrochemical microscopy to bioanalytical systems

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is a powerful surface characterisation technique that allows for the electrochemical profiling of surfaces with sub micrometer resolution. While SECM has been most widely used to electrochemically study and profile non-biological surfaces and processes, the technique has in recent years, been increasingly used for the study of biological systems - and this is the focus of this review. An overview of SECM and how the technique may be applied to the study of biological systems will first be given. SECM and its application to the study of cells, enzymes and DNA will each be considered in detail. The review will conclude with a discussion of future directions and scope for further developments and applications.

Measurement of gene expression from single adherent cells and spheroids collected using fast electrical lysis

The cytosol of a single adherent cell was collected by the electrical cell lysis method with a Pt-ring capillary probe, and the cellular messenger RNA (mRNA) was analyzed at a single-cell level. The ring electrode probe was positioned 20 microm above the cultured cells that formed a monolayer on an indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrode, and an electric pulse with a magnitude of 40 V was applied for 10 micros between the probe and the ITO electrodes in an isotonic sucrose solution. Immediately after the electric pulse, less than 1 microL of the lysed solution was collected using a micro-injector followed by RNA purification and first strand cDNA synthesis. Real-time PCR was performed to quantify the copy numbers of mRNA encoding glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) expression inside the single cell. The average copy numbers of GAPDH mRNA collected by the electrical cell lysis method were found to be comparable to those obtained by a simple capillary suction method. Although single-cell analysis has already been demonstrated, we have shown for the first time that the fast electrical cell lysis can be used for quantitative mRNA analysis at the single-cell level. This electrical cell lysis method was further applied for the analysis of mRNA obtained from single spheroids-the aggregated cellular masses formed during the three-dimensional culture -- as a model system to isolate small cellular clusters from tissues and organs.

Scanning electrochemical microscopy for direct imaging of reaction rates

Not only in electrochemistry but also in biology and in membrane transport, localized processes at solid-liquid or liquid-liquid interfaces play an important role at defect sites, pores, or individual cells, but are difficult to characterize by integral investigation. Scanning electrochemical microscopy is suitable for such investigations. After two decades of development, this method is based on a solid theoretical foundation and a large number of demonstrated applications. It offers the possibility of directly imaging heterogeneous reaction rates and locally modifying substrates by electrochemically generated reagents. The applications range from classical electrochemical problems, such as the investigation of localized corrosion and electrocatalytic reactions in fuel cells, sensor surfaces, biochips, and microstructured analysis systems, to mass transport through synthetic membranes, skin and tissue, as well as intercellular communication processes. Moreover, processes can be studied that occur at liquid surfaces and liquid-liquid interfaces.

Microimaging of Algal Bioconvection by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy

Local bioconvection generated by algal flagellar movement was imaged by scanning electrochemical microscopy. As a microelectrode probe vertically approached an individual multicellular flagellate alga, Volvox carteri, an oxidation current of a coexisting redox marker ([Fe(CN)6]4-) increased gradually, due to bioconvective enhancement of mass transport, and eventually decreased because the algal body blocked the diffusion of the marker. Two-dimensional imaging of the bioconvection of an individual alga was also possible. The bioconvective enhancement of the current was hindered by a toxic compound that inhibits the flagellar movement.

Regulation and characterization of the polarity of cells embedded in a reconstructed basement matrix using a three-dimensional micro-culture system

Three cell lines, that is, the human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and the human mammary epithelial cell line (S-1) and its malignant form (T4-2) were embedded in a reconstituted basement membrane (Matrigel) that had 20-nL pyramid-shaped silicon microstructures. The proliferative behavior of the MCF-7 cells was dependent on the surrounding conditions (2-D, collagen gel, or Matrigel), whereas the respiratory activity of a single cell (F(c)) was almost identical under different culture conditions. The F(c) value changed with cellular polarity. The F(c) value for the S-1 cells was observed to decrease slightly, whereas that of the T4-2 cells increased 2 days after cultivation in the microstructures within the Matrigel. However, when the T4-2 cells were cultured in the presence of tyrphostin AG 1478 (T4-2 tyr) to inhibit epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling, the F(c) value decreased slightly and remained almost constant for an additional 1 week; this was similar to the behavior of the S-1 cells. Further, fluorescence images showed that the T4-2 tyr cells formed polar structures that were similar to those formed by the S-1 cells whereas the T4-2 cells did not form such structures. These results indicate that cellular polarity can be assessed by measuring cellular respiratory activity.

A multicellular spheroid array to realize spheroid formation, culture, and viability assay on a chip

We describe a novel multicellular spheroid culture system that facilitates the easy preparation and culture of a spheroid microarray for the long-term monitoring of cellular activity. A spheroid culture device with an array of pyramid-like microholes was constructed in a silicon chip that was equipped with elastomeric microchannels. A cell suspension was introduced via the microfluidic channel into the microstructure that comprised silicon microholes and elastomeric microwells. A single spheroid can be formed and localized precisely within each microstructure. Since the culture medium could be replaced via the microchannels, a long-term culture (of approximately 2 weeks) is available on the chip. Measurement of albumin production in the hepatoma cell line (HepG2) showed that the liver-specific functions were maintained for 2 weeks. Based on the cellular respiratory activity, the cellular viability of the spheroid array on the chip was evaluated using scanning electrochemical microscopy. Responses to four different chemical stimulations were simultaneously detected on the same chip, thus demonstrating that each channel could be evaluated independently under various stimulation conditions. Our spheroid culture system facilitated the understanding of spheroid formation, culture, and viability assay on a single chip, thus functioning as a useful drug-screening device for cancer and liver cells.

Electrochemical Monitoring of Cellular Signal Transduction with a Secreted Alkaline Phosphatase Reporter System

Electrochemical monitoring of cellular signal transduction under three-dimensional (3-D) cell culture conditions has been demonstrated by combining cell-based microarrays with a secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) reporter system. The cells were genetically engineered to produce SEAP under the control of nuclear factor kappaB (NFkappaB) enhancer elements, and they were embedded with a small volume of a collagen gel matrix on a pyramidal-shaped silicon microstructure. Cellular SEAP expression triggered by NFkappaB activation was assessed by two types of electrochemical systems. First, SEAP expression of a 3-D cell array on a chip was continuously monitored in situ for 2 days by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). Since the SECM-based assay enables the evaluation of cellular respiratory activity, simultaneous measurements of cellular viability and signal transduction were possible. Further, we have developed an electrode-integrated cell culture device for parallel evaluation of cellular SEAP expression. The detector electrode was integrated around the silicon microhole. Two kinds of cells were immobilized on the array of microholes on the same chip for comparative characterization of their SEAP activity. This electrochemical microdevice can be applied to evaluate the SEAP expression activity in multiple cellular microarrays by a high-throughput method.

Scanning electrochemical microscopy: principles and applications to biophysical systems

This review highlights numerous and wide ranging biophysical and biochemical applications of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). SECM instrumentation and theoretical modelling, necessary for experimental interpretation, are outlined, followed by a detailed discussion of the diverse applications of this technique. These include the measurement of flow through membranes, the determination of kinetic parameters of reactions, the investigation of the permeability of small molecules in tissues and monitoring biological processes, such as the production of oxygen or nitric oxide by cells. The significant impact of micro-electrochemical techniques on our understanding of basic physicochemical processes at biologically relevant interfaces is also considered. Studies reviewed include transport across and within bilayers and monolayers. Recent advances in SECM include the combination of SECM with other techniques, such as atomic force microscopy and optical microscopy. These developments are highlighted, along with prospects for the future.

Chemically imaging living cells by scanning electrochemical microscopy

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is useful in probing and characterizing interfaces at high resolution. In this paper, the general principles of this technique are described and several applications of SECM to biological systems, particularly to living cells, is discussed, along with several example systems. Thiodione was detected and monitored electrochemically during the treatment of hepatocytes with cytotoxic menadione. The antimicrobial effects of silver(I) was followed by SECM through bacterial respiration. Living HeLa cells were shown to accumulate ferrocencemethanol (FcMeOH) and generated positive feedback for FcMeOH oxidation that can be further used to monitor the cell viability. Finally, individual giant liposomes, as cell models, with encapsulated redox compounds were successfully probed by SECM. In general SECM has the advantage of very high spatial resolution and versatility, especially for the detection of electroactive substances.

Multi-channel 3-D cell culture device integrated on a silicon chip for anticancer drug sensitivity test

A novel three-dimensional cell culture system was constructed with an array of cell panels (4 x 5) in a silicon chip, together with multi-channel drug containers. Human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells were embedded in a collagen-gel matrix and entrapped in a pyramidal-shaped silicon hole. Each cell panel can be isolated by a channel composed of a microfluid part and a reservoir. A cell panel was exposed to 200 mm KCN for 2 days to demonstrate that each cell panel could be independently evaluated under various stimulation conditions. Based on the cellular respiration activity, the proliferation behavior was continuously monitored on the silicon-based cell array for 5 days using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). The cells entrapped in the device (3-D culture) proliferated normally, and the proliferation rate was lower than that of cells grown in a monolayer cell culture (2-D culture). The effects of three anticancer drugs measured simultaneously on the cell chip were in good agreement with those obtained by a conventional colorimetric assay. Our results suggest that the silicon-based device for 3D culture is appropriate for a chemosensitivity assay involving multi-chemical stimulation.