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Xia CW, Saranchova I, Finkel PL, Besoiu S, Munro L, Pfeifer CG, Haegert A, Lin YY, Le Bihan S, Collins C, Jefferies WA. A diversity of novel type-2 innate lymphoid cell subpopulations revealed during tumour expansion. Commun Biol 2024; 7:12. [PMID: 38172434 PMCID: PMC10764766 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05536-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) perform vital functions in orchestrating humoral immune responses, facilitating tissue remodelling, and ensuring tissue homeostasis. Additionally, in a role that has garnered considerably less attention, ILC2s can also enhance Th1-related cytolytic T lymphocyte immune responses against tumours. Studies have thus far generally failed to address the mystery of how one ILC2 cell-type can participate in a multiplicity of functions. Here we utilized single cell RNA sequencing analysis to create the first comprehensive atlas of naïve and tumour-associated lung ILC2s and discover multiple unique subtypes of ILC2s equipped with developmental gene programs that become skewed during tumour expansion favouring inflammation, antigen processing, immunological memory and Th1-related anti-tumour CTL responses. The discovery of these new subtypes of ILC2s challenges current paradigms of ILC2 biology and provides an explanation for their diversity of function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Wenjing Xia
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Iryna Saranchova
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Pablo L Finkel
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Stephanie Besoiu
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Lonna Munro
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Cheryl G Pfeifer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Anne Haegert
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Yen-Yi Lin
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Stéphane Le Bihan
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Colin Collins
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Wilfred A Jefferies
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- The Laboratory for Advanced Genome Analysis (LAGA), The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver General Hospital, 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, V6H 3Z6, Canada.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1M9, Canada.
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2
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Nohara LL, Ellis SLS, Dreier C, Dada S, Saranchova I, Munro L, Pfeifer CG, Coyle KM, Morrice JR, Shim DJS, Ahn P, De Voogd N, Williams DE, Cheng P, Garrovillas E, Andersen RJ, Jefferies WA. A novel cell-based screen identifies chemical entities that reverse the immune-escape phenotype of metastatic tumours. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1119607. [PMID: 37256225 PMCID: PMC10225555 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1119607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic and epigenetic events have been implicated in the downregulation of the cellular antigen processing and presentation machinery (APM), which in turn, has been associated with cancer evasion of the immune system. When these essential components are lacking, cancers develop the ability to subvert host immune surveillance allowing cancer cells to become invisible to the immune system and, in turn, promote cancer metastasis. Here we describe and validate the first high-throughput cell-based screening assay to identify chemical extracts and unique chemical entities that reverse the downregulation of APM components in cell lines derived from metastatic tumours. Through the screening of a library of 480 marine invertebrate extracts followed by bioassay-guided fractionation, curcuphenol, a common sesquiterpene phenol derived from turmeric, was identified as the active compound of one of the extracts. We demonstrate that curcuphenol induces the expression of the APM components, TAP-1 and MHC-I molecules, in cell lines derived from both metastatic prostate and lung carcinomas. Turmeric and curcumins that contain curcuphenol have long been utilized not only as a spice in the preparation of food, but also in traditional medicines for treating cancers. The remarkable discovery that a common component of spices can increase the expression of APM components in metastatic tumour cells and, therefore reverse immune-escape mechanisms, provides a rationale for the development of foods and advanced nutraceuticals as therapeutic candidates for harnessing the power of the immune system to recognize and destroy metastatic cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian L. Nohara
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Samantha L. S. Ellis
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Carola Dreier
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Sarah Dada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Departments of Medical Genetics, Zoology, and Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Iryna Saranchova
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Departments of Medical Genetics, Zoology, and Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Lonna Munro
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Cheryl G. Pfeifer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Krysta M. Coyle
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Jessica R. Morrice
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel Joo Sung Shim
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Paul Ahn
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nicole De Voogd
- Netherlands Centre for Biodiversity Naturalis, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - David E. Williams
- Departments of Chemistry and Earth Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Ping Cheng
- Departments of Chemistry and Earth Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Emmanuel Garrovillas
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Raymond J. Andersen
- Departments of Chemistry and Earth Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Wilfred A. Jefferies
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Departments of Medical Genetics, Zoology, and Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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3
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Fan J, To KKW, Chen ZS, Fu L. ABC transporters affects tumor immune microenvironment to regulate cancer immunotherapy and multidrug resistance. Drug Resist Updat 2023; 66:100905. [PMID: 36463807 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2022.100905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is the phenomenon in which cancer cells simultaneously develop resistance to a broad spectrum of structurally and mechanistically unrelated drugs. MDR severely hinders the effective treatment of cancer and is the major cause of chemotherapy failure. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are extensively expressed in various body tissues, and actively transport endogenous and exogenous substrates through biological membranes. Overexpression of ABC transporters is frequently observed in MDR cancer cells, which promotes efflux of chemotherapeutic drugs and reduces their intracellular accumulation. Increasing evidence suggests that ABC transporters regulate tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) by transporting various cytokines, thus controlling anti-tumor immunity and sensitivity to anticancer drugs. On the other hand, the expression of various ABC transporters is regulated by cytokines and other immune signaling molecules. Targeted inhibition of ABC transporter expression or function can enhance the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors by promoting anticancer immune microenvironment. This review provides an update on the recent research progress in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China;Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangdong Esophageal Cancer Institute; Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China; Department of pharmacy, Beijing Shijitan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100038, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Bio-characteristic Profiling for Evaluation of Rational Drug Use, Beijing 100038, China
| | - Kenneth Kin Wah To
- School of Pharmacy, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhe-Sheng Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, United States.
| | - Liwu Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China;Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangdong Esophageal Cancer Institute; Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China.
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4
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Mantel I, Sadiq BA, Blander JM. Spotlight on TAP and its vital role in antigen presentation and cross-presentation. Mol Immunol 2022; 142:105-119. [PMID: 34973498 PMCID: PMC9241385 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2021.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the hunt for a transporter molecule ostensibly responsible for the translocation of peptides across the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane yielded the successful discovery of transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) protein. TAP is a heterodimer complex comprised of TAP1 and TAP2, which utilizes ATP to transport cytosolic peptides into the ER across its membrane. In the ER, together with other components it forms the peptide loading complex (PLC), which directs loading of high affinity peptides onto nascent major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules that are then transported to the cell surface for presentation to CD8+ T cells. TAP also plays a crucial role in transporting peptides into phagosomes and endosomes during cross-presentation in dendritic cells (DCs). Because of the critical role that TAP plays in both classical MHC-I presentation and cross-presentation, its expression and function are often compromised by numerous types of cancers and viruses to evade recognition by cytotoxic CD8 T cells. Here we review the discovery and function of TAP with a major focus on its role in cross-presentation in DCs. We discuss a recently described emergency route of noncanonical cross-presentation that is mobilized in DCs upon TAP blockade to restore CD8 T cell cross-priming. We also discuss the various strategies employed by cancer cells and viruses to target TAP expression or function to evade immunosurveillance - along with some strategies by which the repertoire of peptides presented by cells which downregulate TAP can be targeted as a therapeutic strategy to mobilize a TAP-independent CD8 T cell response. Lastly, we discuss TAP polymorphisms and the role of TAP in inherited disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Mantel
- The Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Barzan A Sadiq
- The Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - J Magarian Blander
- The Jill Roberts Institute for Research in Inflammatory Bowel Disease, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, Cornell University, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
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5
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Dada S, Ellis SLS, Wood C, Nohara LL, Dreier C, Garcia NH, Saranchova I, Munro L, Pfeifer CG, Eyford BA, Kari S, Garrovillas E, Caspani G, Al Haddad E, Gray PW, Morova T, Lack NA, Andersen RJ, Tjoelker L, Jefferies WA. Specific cannabinoids revive adaptive immunity by reversing immune evasion mechanisms in metastatic tumours. Front Immunol 2022; 13:982082. [PMID: 36923728 PMCID: PMC10010394 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.982082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging cancers are sculpted by neo-Darwinian selection for superior growth and survival but minimal immunogenicity; consequently, metastatic cancers often evolve common genetic and epigenetic signatures to elude immune surveillance. Immune subversion by metastatic tumours can be achieved through several mechanisms; one of the most frequently observed involves the loss of expression or mutation of genes composing the MHC-I antigen presentation machinery (APM) that yields tumours invisible to Cytotoxic T lymphocytes, the key component of the adaptive cellular immune response. Fascinating ethnographic and experimental findings indicate that cannabinoids inhibit the growth and progression of several categories of cancer; however, the mechanisms underlying these observations remain clouded in uncertainty. Here, we screened a library of cannabinoid compounds and found molecular selectivity amongst specific cannabinoids, where related molecules such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, and cannabigerol can reverse the metastatic immune escape phenotype in vitro by inducing MHC-I cell surface expression in a wide variety of metastatic tumours that subsequently sensitizing tumours to T lymphocyte recognition. Remarkably, H3K27Ac ChIPseq analysis established that cannabigerol and gamma interferon induce overlapping epigenetic signatures and key gene pathways in metastatic tumours related to cellular senescence, as well as APM genes involved in revealing metastatic tumours to the adaptive immune response. Overall, the data suggest that specific cannabinoids may have utility in cancer immunotherapy regimens by overcoming immune escape and augmenting cancer immune surveillance in metastatic disease. Finally, the fundamental discovery of the ability of cannabinoids to alter epigenetic programs may help elucidate many of the pleiotropic medicinal effects of cannabinoids on human physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Dada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Samantha L S Ellis
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christi Wood
- Biotechnology - Biomedical Science and Technology (BST), University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Lilian L Nohara
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Carola Dreier
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Biotechnology - Biomedical Science and Technology (BST), University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | | | - Iryna Saranchova
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Lonna Munro
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Cheryl G Pfeifer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Brett A Eyford
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Suresh Kari
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Emmanuel Garrovillas
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Giorgia Caspani
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Eliana Al Haddad
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Tunc Morova
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nathan A Lack
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,School of Medicine, Koç University, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Raymond J Andersen
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Wilfred A Jefferies
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Centre for Blood Research, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,The Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Urological Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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6
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Bradley JH, Barwick S, Horn GQ, Ullrich E, Best B, Arnold JP, Gregg RK. Simulated microgravity-mediated reversion of murine lymphoma immune evasion. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14623. [PMID: 31602007 PMCID: PMC6787044 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51106-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
No human has returned to the moon since the end of the Apollo program 47 years ago, however, new missions are planned for an orbital outpost. Space radiation and the potential for cancer remain as important issues to the future of human space exploration. While improved shield technologies and protective biologicals are under development, little is known concerning the interaction between cancer cells and host immunity in microgravity. As a hallmark of cancer, tumor cells employ mechanisms of immune evasion to avoid elimination by protective CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We showed that a murine lymphoma was able to produce a soluble factor that inhibited the function of dendritic cells in activating the CD4+ T cells. Culture of the lymphoma cells in simulated microgravity (SMG), and not Static conditions, restored the CD4+ T cell response and augmented CD8+ T cell-mediated destruction of the cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Thus, SMG impaired the mechanism of tumor escape and rendered the cancer cells more susceptible to T cell-mediated elimination. The stress of microgravity may expose the most critical components of a tumor’s escape mechanism for astronaut protection and the generation of new cancer therapeutics for patients on Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian H Bradley
- Magnolia Research Center, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine Carolinas Campus, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA
| | - Shannon Barwick
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Physics, Converse College, Spartanburg, SC, 29302, USA.,Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
| | - Gillian Q Horn
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Physics, Converse College, Spartanburg, SC, 29302, USA
| | - Elizabeth Ullrich
- Magnolia Research Center, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine Carolinas Campus, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA
| | - Brianna Best
- Magnolia Research Center, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine Carolinas Campus, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA
| | - Jennifer P Arnold
- Magnolia Research Center, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine Carolinas Campus, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA
| | - Randal K Gregg
- Magnolia Research Center, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine Carolinas Campus, Spartanburg, SC, 29303, USA. .,Department of Basic Medical Sciences, DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine at Lincoln Memorial University - Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, 37932, USA.
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7
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Downregulation of TAP1 and TAP2 in early stage breast cancer. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0187323. [PMID: 29091951 PMCID: PMC5706630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
TAP1-TAP2 heterodimeric complexes are recognized as the transporter associated with antigen processing of major histocompatibility complex class I peptides for recognition by tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. In this study, we investigated the immunohistochemical expression of TAP1 and TAP2 in 160 patients with breast cancer and correlated their expression levels with clinicopathologic parameters. The median age of the patient cohort was 52.5 years (range, 30–86 years). Both TAP1 and TAP2 immunohistochemical expression levels correlated significantly with breast cancer characteristics (P < .001). TAP1 expression levels were low to negative in stage I breast tumors. TAP1 and TAP2 levels were significantly higher in grade 3 tumors than low-grade (grade 1 and 2) tumors. TAP1 and TAP2 expression levels were not significantly different among different levels of HER2-expressing tumors and did not vary by estrogen and progesterone receptor status or patient age. Both TAP1 and TAP2 overexpression in breast cancer might be an indicator of an aggressive breast tumor.
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8
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Saranchova I, Han J, Huang H, Fenninger F, Choi KB, Munro L, Pfeifer C, Welch I, Wyatt AW, Fazli L, Gleave ME, Jefferies WA. Discovery of a Metastatic Immune Escape Mechanism Initiated by the Loss of Expression of the Tumour Biomarker Interleukin-33. Sci Rep 2016; 6:30555. [PMID: 27619158 PMCID: PMC5020406 DOI: 10.1038/srep30555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A new paradigm for understanding immune-surveillance and immune escape in cancer is described here. Metastatic carcinomas express reduced levels of IL-33 and diminished levels of antigen processing machinery (APM), compared to syngeneic primary tumours. Complementation of IL-33 expression in metastatic tumours upregulates APM expression and functionality of major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-molecules, resulting in reduced tumour growth rates and a lower frequency of circulating tumour cells. Parallel studies in humans demonstrate that low tumour expression of IL-33 is an immune biomarker associated with recurrent prostate and kidney renal clear cell carcinomas. Thus, IL-33 has a significant role in cancer immune-surveillance against primary tumours, which is lost during the metastatic transition that actuates immune escape in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iryna Saranchova
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4.,Department of Microbiology &Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Jeffrey Han
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4.,Department of Microbiology &Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Hui Huang
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4.,Department of Microbiology &Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Franz Fenninger
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4.,Department of Microbiology &Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3
| | - Kyung Bok Choi
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Lonna Munro
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Cheryl Pfeifer
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Ian Welch
- Department of Animal Care Services, University of British Columbia, 4145 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver BC Canada V6T 1W5
| | - Alexander W Wyatt
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia Gordon &Leslie Diamond Health Care Centre, Level 6, 2775 Laurel Street, Vancouver, BC Canada V5Z 1M9.,The Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Ladan Fazli
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia Gordon &Leslie Diamond Health Care Centre, Level 6, 2775 Laurel Street, Vancouver, BC Canada V5Z 1M9.,The Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Martin E Gleave
- Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia Gordon &Leslie Diamond Health Care Centre, Level 6, 2775 Laurel Street, Vancouver, BC Canada V5Z 1M9.,The Vancouver Prostate Centre, University of British Columbia 2660 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC Canada V6H 3Z6
| | - Wilfred A Jefferies
- The Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 301-2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4.,Department of Microbiology &Immunology, University of British Columbia, 1365 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia 1364 - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3.,Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia 4200 - 6270 University Blvd, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z4.,Centre for Blood Research at the University of British Columbia 4th Floor - 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3.,Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health at the University of British Columbia 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver BC Canada V6T 1Z3
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9
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Heise R, Amann PM, Ensslen S, Marquardt Y, Czaja K, Joussen S, Beer D, Abele R, Plewnia G, Tampé R, Merk HF, Hermanns HM, Baron JM. Interferon Alpha Signalling and Its Relevance for the Upregulatory Effect of Transporter Proteins Associated with Antigen Processing (TAP) in Patients with Malignant Melanoma. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0146325. [PMID: 26735690 PMCID: PMC4703378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0146325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Interferon alpha (IFNα) is routinely used in the clinical practice for adjuvant systemic melanoma therapy. Understanding the molecular mechanism of IFNα effects and prediction of response in the IFNα therapy regime allows initiation and continuation of IFNα treatment for responder and exclusion of non-responder to avoid therapy inefficacy and side-effects. The transporter protein associated with antigen processing-1 (TAP1) is part of the MHC class I peptide-loading complex, and important for antigen presentation in tumor and antigen presenting cells. In the context of personalized medicine, we address this potential biomarker TAP1 as a target of IFNα signalling. RESULTS We could show that IFNα upregulates TAP1 expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of patients with malignant melanoma receiving adjuvant high-dose immunotherapy. IFNα also induced expression of TAP1 in mouse blood and tumor tissue and suppressed the formation of melanoma metastasis in an in vivo B16 tumor model. Besides its expression, TAP binding affinity and transport activity is induced by IFNα in human monocytic THP1 cells. Furthermore, our data revealed that IFNα clearly activates phosphorylation of STAT1 and STAT3 in THP1 and A375 melanoma cells. Inhibition of Janus kinases abrogates the IFNα-induced TAP1 expression. These results suggest that the JAK/STAT pathway is a crucial mediator for TAP1 expression elicited by IFNα treatment. CONCLUSION We suppose that silencing of TAP1 expression provides tumor cells with a mechanism to escape cytotoxic T-lymphocyte recognition. The observed benefit of IFNα treatment could be mediated by the shown dual effect of TAP1 upregulation in antigen presenting cells on the one hand, and of TAP1 upregulation in 'silent' metastatic melanoma cells on the other hand. In conclusion, this work contributes to a better understanding of the mode of action of IFNα which is essential to identify markers to predict, assess and monitor therapeutic response of IFNα treatment in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Heise
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Philipp M. Amann
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Yvonne Marquardt
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Katharina Czaja
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sylvia Joussen
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Daniel Beer
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Rupert Abele
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Gabriele Plewnia
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Robert Tampé
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Hans F. Merk
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Heike M. Hermanns
- Medical Clinic and Policlinic II, Hepatology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jens M. Baron
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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10
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Genetic variations of TAP1 gene exon 3 affects gene expression and Escherichia coli F18 resistance in piglets. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:11161-71. [PMID: 24955792 PMCID: PMC4100205 DOI: 10.3390/ijms150611161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Firstly, our research group identified Sutai pigs’ phenotypes that exhibited extreme resistance and susceptibility to the Escherichia coli F18 respectively, and then eight ETEC (Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli) F18-resistant piglets and eight ETEC F18-sensitive piglets were selected. Then, the TAP1 (Transporter associated with antigen processing) mRNA relative expression levels were analyzed in 11 tissues of the resistant and susceptible phenotypes. Simultaneously, we detected the genetic variations in exon 3 of the TAP1 gene and evaluated the TAP1 mRNA expression levels among the different genotype pigs to study the effects of the genetic variation on gene expression, and the E. coli F18 resistance. The results revealed higher expression levels in the resistant genotypes than that in the susceptible genotypes in 11 tissues, with significant differences in the spleen, lymph node, lung, thymus, duodenum and jejunum. Furthermore, a G729A mutation was identified in the TAP1 gene exon 3, and this mutation deviates from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p < 0.01). The TAP1 mRNA levels in GG genotype were significantly higher than that in the other two genotypes, with significant differences in the liver, lung, kidney, thymus, lymph node, duodenum and jejunum tissues. We speculated that high expression of the TAP1 gene might confer resistance against the E. coli F18, the G729A mutation had a significant effect on the mRNA expression, and individuals with the GG genotype possessed a stronger ability to resist the E. coli F18 infection.
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11
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Qiu T, Wang L, Liu XH, Weng XD, Kuang YL, Chen ZY, Chen H, Zhu HC. Over-expressing transporters associated with antigen processing increases antitumor immunity response in prostate cancer. Cell Immunol 2012; 279:167-73. [PMID: 23246678 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2012.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2012] [Revised: 10/14/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
As we know, prostate cancer down-regulates expression of HLA-1 Antigen Processing Machinery (APM) and has defects in the antigen presentation pathway. In vitro, the prostate cancer cell (PC-3 cells) infected with Lentivirus TAP1 can efficiently over-express TAP1 and Tapasin, and HLA-1 was also up-regulated on the surface of the infected cells. The lentivirus TAP1 infection increased the apoptosis rate of PC-3 cells. In addition, with the co-cluture PC-3 cells and lymphocytes, TAP1 augmented the expression of CD3⁺CD8⁺CD38⁺ T cell. Importantly, administration of Lentivirus TAP1 to prostate cancer cells in a xenograft mouse model can prolong survival and increase the CD4⁺ T cells, and CD8⁺ T cells as well as decrease Foxp3⁺ T cells in the tumor microenvironment. In summary, a recombinant lentivirus expressing TAP1 can effectively increase prostate cancer tumor-specific immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Qiu
- Department of Urology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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12
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Kubica AW, Brewer JD. Melanoma in immunosuppressed patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2012; 87:991-1003. [PMID: 23036673 PMCID: PMC3538393 DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2012.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 04/04/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The immunogenic characteristics of malignant melanoma are intriguing. To date, multiple studies exist regarding the immunogenicity of melanoma. In this article, we summarize data in the literature on the role of immunosuppression in melanoma and discuss several immunocompromised patient populations in detail. A comprehensive PubMed search was conducted with no date limitation. The following search terms were used: melanoma in combination with immunosuppression, immunocompromised, genetics, antigen processing, UV radiation, organ transplantation, organ transplant recipients, lymphoproliferative disease, lymphoma, CLL, NHL, radiation, and HIV/AIDS. Although no formal criteria were used for inclusion of studies, most pertinent studies on the topic were reviewed, with the exception of smaller case reports and case series. The included studies were generally large (≥ 1000 patients in organ transplant recipient studies; ≥ 500 patients in lymphoma studies), with a focus on institutional experiences, or population-based national or international epidemiologic studies. Melanoma-induced immunosuppression, the role of UV radiation in melanoma development, and the epidemiology, clinical course, and prognosis of melanoma in immunocompromised patients are highlighted. Organ transplant recipients, patients with lymphoproliferative disorders, patients with iatrogenic immunosuppression, and patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection/AIDS are also highlighted. Recommendations are proposed for the care and monitoring of immunosuppressed patients with melanoma. With better understanding of the molecular microenvironment and clinical course of melanoma in immunosuppressed patients, novel therapies could be developed and outcomes potentially affected in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jerry D. Brewer
- Department of Dermatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
- Correspondence: Address to Jerry D. Brewer, MD, Department of Dermatology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First St SW, Rochester, MN 55905
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13
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Maito FLDM, Souza APDD, Pereira L, Smithey M, Hinrichs D, Bouwer A, Bonorino C. Intratumoral TLR-4 Agonist Injection Is Critical for Modulation of Tumor Microenvironment and Tumor Rejection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.5402/2012/926817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment shelters a complex network of mechanisms that enables local Immunosuppression to support tumor growth. In this study we found that, B16F10 melanoma growth is inversely correlated with peritumoral infiltrate cell number and with cell numbers in draining lymph nodes. Tumor growth ensued even when a foreign antigen was expressed by B16F10 cells in the presence of naïve specific CD8+ T cells. Treatment with TLR agonists has shown to sometimes result in tumor regression, however, not always with long-lasting effects. We compared the relevance of different injection regimens of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Tumor growth was arrested only by intratumoral LPS injection after the tumor was already established. This result was accompanied by a dramatic change in DC activation inside the tumor. Intratumoral LPS also enhanced antigen presentation and tumor-specific CD4+ T cell production of IFN-γ. Injection of LPS before tumor challenge or codelivery of tumor cells and LPS did not have any effect on tumor progression. Our results suggest that an efficient antitumor immune response leading to tumor regression can be achieved with proper TLR4 activation inside the tumor tissue, impacting the tumor microenvironment. These findings are relevant for the design of treatment for patients with malignant melanomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Luiz Dal Moro Maito
- Faculdade de Biociências e Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Avenida Ipiranga 6690, 2° Andar, 90680-001 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Duarte de Souza
- Faculdade de Biociências e Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Avenida Ipiranga 6690, 2° Andar, 90680-001 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Luciana Pereira
- Faculdade de Biociências e Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Avenida Ipiranga 6690, 2° Andar, 90680-001 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Megan Smithey
- Departments of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - David Hinrichs
- Departments of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Archie Bouwer
- Departments of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Cristina Bonorino
- Faculdade de Biociências e Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Avenida Ipiranga 6690, 2° Andar, 90680-001 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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14
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Sharma S, Stabila J, Pietras L, Singh AR, McGonnigal B, Ernerudh J, Matthiesen L, Padbury JF. Haplotype-dependent differential activation of the human IL-10 gene promoter in macrophages and trophoblasts: implications for placental IL-10 deficiency and pregnancy complications. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 64:179-87. [PMID: 20482524 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM polymorphic changes in the IL-10 gene promoter have been identified that lead to altered IL-10 production. We hypothesized that because of these genotypic changes, the IL-10 promoter might be expressed in a cell type-specific manner and may respond differentially to inflammatory triggers. METHOD OF STUDY we created reporter gene promoter constructs containing GCC, ACC, and ATA haplotypes using DNA from patients harboring polymorphic changes at -1082 (G→A), -819 (C→T), and -592 (C→A) sites in the IL-10 promoter. These individual luciferase reporter constructs were transiently transfected into either primary term trophoblasts or THP1 monocytic cells. DNA-binding studies were performed to implicate the role of the Sp1 transcription factor in response to differential promoter activity. RESULTS our results suggest that the GCC promoter construct was activated in trophoblast cells in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), as demonstrated by reporter gene expression, but not in monocytic cells. The ACC construct showed weaker activation in both cell types. Importantly, while the ATA promoter was constitutively activated in both cell types, its expression was selectively repressed in response to LPS, but only in trophoblasts. DNA-nuclear protein binding assays with nuclear extracts from LPS treated or untreated cells suggested a functional relevance for Sp1 binding differences at the -592 position. CONCLUSIONS these results demonstrate cell type-specific effects of the genotypic changes in the IL-10 gene promoter. These responses may be further modulated by bacterial infections or other inflammatory conditions to suppress IL-10 production in human trophoblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surendra Sharma
- Department of Pediatrics, Women and Infants Hospital-Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02905, USA.
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15
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Song X, Guo W, Cui J, Qian X, Yi L, Chang M, Cai Q, Zhao Q. A tritherapy combination of a fusion protein vaccine with immune-modulating doses of sequential chemotherapies in an optimized regimen completely eradicates large tumors in mice. Int J Cancer 2011; 128:1129-38. [PMID: 20473939 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.25451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-induced immunosuppression plays a critical role in both impeding tumor-specific immune responses and limiting the effects of cancer immunotherapy. Analyses of regulatory cells recruited during the growth of the E7-expressing tumor, TC-1, revealed a high percentage of regulatory T cells (Tregs) as well as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in spleens and tumors. In this study, we proposed that treatment with immune-modulating doses of cyclophosphamide (CTX) and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) would result in a beneficial tumor microenvironment with the suppression of Tregs and MDSCs and, thus, enhance the effect of a human papillomavirus protein vaccine. Our results showed that CTX preconditioning and persistent ATRA treatment along with the vaccine achieved long-term survival and induced long-term memory responses. However, the effect of the antitumor response sharply declined when the tritherapy was initiated after the optimal therapeutic time. The more intensive regimen could rescue the effect of the tritherapy accompanied by the decreased percentage of Tregs and MDSCs in spleens and tumors. Besides, a favorable host environment was created by the reduced secretion of interleukin-10 and 6 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the tumor niche and decreased the expression of phosphorylation-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 of TC-1 tumors. Our data shed light on the immune-modulating doses of sequential chemoimmunotherapeutic strategy targeting not only the tumor but also its microenvironment, which suggests a potential clinical benefit for the immunotherapy of HPV-associated malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinxin Song
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Cancer Institute & Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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16
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Li XL, Zhang D, Knight D, Odaka Y, Glass J, Mathis JM, Zhang QJ. Priming of immune responses against transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP)-deficient tumours: tumour direct priming. Immunology 2010; 128:420-8. [PMID: 20067541 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2009.03127.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that introduction of transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) 1 into TAP-negative CMT.64, a major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) down-regulated mouse lung carcinoma cell line, enhanced T-cell immunity against TAP-deficient tumour cells. Here, we have addressed two questions: (1) whether such immunity can be further augmented by co-expression of TAP1 with B7.1 or H-2K(b) genes, and (2) which T-cell priming mechanism (tumour direct priming or dendritic cell cross-priming) plays the major role in inducing an immune response against TAP-deficient tumours. We introduced the B7.1 or H-2K(b) gene into TAP1-expressing CMT.64 cells and determined which gene co-expressed with TAP1 was able to provide greater protective immunity against TAP-deficient tumour cells. Our results show that immunization of mice with B7.1 and TAP1 co-expressing but not H-2K(b) and TAP1 co-expressing CMT.64 cells dramatically augments T-cell-mediated immunity, as shown by an increase in survival of mice inoculated with live CMT.64 cells. In addition, our results suggest that induction of T-cell-mediated immunity against TAP-deficient tumour cells could be mainly through tumour direct priming rather than dendritic cell cross-priming as they show that T cells generated by tumour cell-lysate-loaded dendritic cells recognized TAP-deficient tumour cells much less than TAP-proficient tumour cells. These data suggest that direct priming by TAP1 and B7.1 co-expressing tumour cells is potentially a major mechanism to facilitate immune responses against TAP-deficient tumour cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Lin Li
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Kings Hwy, Shreveport, LA 71130, USA
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17
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Li XL, Liu YY, Knight D, Odaka Y, Mathis JM, Shi R, Glass J, Zhang QJ. Effect of B7.1 costimulation on T-cell based immunity against TAP-negative cancer can be facilitated by TAP1 expression. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6385. [PMID: 19629186 PMCID: PMC2711302 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumors deficient in expression of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) usually fail to induce T-cell-mediated immunity and are resistant to T-cell lysis. However, we have found that introduction of the B7.1 gene into TAP-negative (TAP−) or TAP1-transfected (TAP1+) murine lung carcinoma CMT.64 cells can augment the capacity of the cells to induce a protective immune response against wild-type tumor cells. Differences in the strength of the protective immune responses were observed between TAP− and TAP1+ B7.1 expressing CMT.64 cells depending on the doses of γ-irradiated cell immunization. While mice immunized with either high or low dose of B7.1-expressing TAP1+ cells rejected TAP− tumors, only high dose immunization with B7.1-expressing TAP− cells resulted in tumor rejection. The induced protective immunity was T-cell dependent as demonstrated by dramatically reduced antitumor immunity in mice depleted of CD8 or CD4 cells. Augmentation of T-cell mediated immune response against TAP− tumor cells was also observed in a virally infected tumor cell system. When mice were immunized with a high dose of γ-irradiated CMT.64 cells infected with vaccinia viruses carrying B7.1 and/or TAP1 genes, we found that the cells co-expressing B7.1 and TAP1, but not those expressing B7.1 alone, induced protective immunity against CMT.64 cells. In addition, inoculation with live tumor cells transfected with several different gene(s) revealed that only B7.1- and TAP1-coexpressing tumor cells significantly decreased tumorigenicity. These results indicate that B7.1-provoked antitumor immunity against TAP− cancer is facilitated by TAP1-expression, and thus both genes should be considered for cancer therapy in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Lin Li
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Yong-Yu Liu
- College of Pharmacy, Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Louisiana, Monroe, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - David Knight
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Yoshinobu Odaka
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - J. Michael Mathis
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Runhua Shi
- Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Jonathan Glass
- Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Qian-Jin Zhang
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Setiadi AF, Omilusik K, David MD, Seipp RP, Hartikainen J, Gopaul R, Choi KB, Jefferies WA. Epigenetic enhancement of antigen processing and presentation promotes immune recognition of tumors. Cancer Res 2009; 68:9601-7. [PMID: 19047136 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-07-5270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have been hailed as a powerful new class of anticancer drugs. The HDACi, trichostatin A (TSA), is thought to interfere with epigenetic control of cell cycle progression in G1 and G2-M phase, resulting in growth arrest, differentiation, or apoptosis. Here, we describe a novel mechanism of action of HDACis in promoting immune responses against tumors. We report that treatment of carcinoma cells with TSA increases the expression of many components of the antigen processing machinery, including TAP-1, TAP-2, LMP-2, and Tapasin. Consistent with this result, we found that treatment of metastatic carcinoma cells with TSA also results in an increase in MHC class I expression on the cell surface that functionally translates into an enhanced susceptibility to killing by antigen-specific CTLs. Finally, we observed that TSA treatment suppresses tumor growth and increases tap-1 promoter activity in TAP-deficient tumor cells in vivo. Intriguingly, this in vivo anti-tumoral effect of TSA is entirely mediated by an increase in immunogenicity of the tumor cells, as it does not occur in immunodeficient mice. These novel insights into the molecular mechanisms controlling tumor immune escape may help revise immunotherapeutic modalities for eradicating cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Francesca Setiadi
- Biomedical Research Centre, Michael Smith Laboratories, Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Zhang QJ, Li XL, Wang D, Huang XC, Mathis JM, Duan WM, Knight D, Shi R, Glass J, Zhang DQ, Eisenbach L, Jefferies WA. Trogocytosis of MHC-I/peptide complexes derived from tumors and infected cells enhances dendritic cell cross-priming and promotes adaptive T cell responses. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3097. [PMID: 18769733 PMCID: PMC2518214 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) and the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I), two important components of the MHC-I antigen presentation pathway, are often deficient in tumor cells. The restoration of their expression has been shown to restore the antigenicity and immunogenicity of tumor cells. However, it is unclear whether TAP and MHC-I expression in tumor cells can affect the induction phase of the T cell response. To address this issue, we expressed viral antigens in tumors that are either deficient or proficient in TAP and MHC-I expression. The relative efficiency of direct immunization or immunization through cross-presentation in promoting adaptive T cell responses was compared. The results demonstrated that stimulation of animals with TAP and MHC-I proficient tumor cells generated antigen specific T cells with greater killing activities than those of TAP and MHC-I deficient tumor cells. This discrepancy was traced to differences in the ability of dendritic cells (DCs) to access and sample different antigen reservoirs in TAP and MHC-I proficient versus deficient cells and thereby stimulate adaptive immune responses through the process of cross-presentation. In addition, our data suggest that the increased activity of T cells is caused by the enhanced DC uptake and utilization of MHC-I/peptide complexes from the proficient cells as an additional source of processed antigen. Furthermore, we demonstrate that immune-escape and metastasis are promoted in the absence of this DC ‘arming’ mechanism. Physiologically, this novel form of DC antigen sampling resembles trogocytosis, and acts to enhance T cell priming and increase the efficacy of adaptive immune responses against tumors and infectious pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian-Jin Zhang
- Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Gene Therapy Program, Feist-Weiller Cancer Center, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana, USA.
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Tao J, Li Y, Liu YQ, Wang L, Yang J, Dong J, Wu Y, Shen GX, Tu YT. Restoration of the Expression of Transports Associated with Antigen Processing in Human Malignant Melanoma Increases Tumor-Specific Immunity. J Invest Dermatol 2008; 128:1991-6. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2008.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Lou Y, Basha G, Seipp RP, Cai B, Chen SS, Moise AR, Jeffries AP, Gopaul RS, Vitalis TZ, Jefferies WA. Combining the antigen processing components TAP and Tapasin elicits enhanced tumor-free survival. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14:1494-501. [PMID: 18316574 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-1066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Tpn is a member of the MHC class I loading complex and functions to bridge the TAP peptide transporter to MHC class I molecules. Metastatic human carcinomas often express low levels of the antigen-processing components Tapasin and TAP and display few functional surface MHC class I molecules. As a result, carcinomas are unrecognizable by effector CTLs. The aim of this study is to examine if Tapasin (Tpn) plays a critical role in the escape of tumors from immunologic recognition. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN To test our hypothesis, a nonreplicating adenovirus vector encoding human Tpn (AdhTpn) was constructed to restore Tpn expression in vitro and in vivo in a murine lung carcinoma cell line (CMT.64) that is characterized by down-regulation of surface MHC class I due to deficiency in antigen-processing components. RESULTS Ex vivo, Tpn expression increased surface MHC class I and restored susceptibility of tumor cells to antigen-specific CTL killing, and AdhTpn infection of dendritic cells also significantly increased cross-presentation and cross-priming. Furthermore, tumor-bearing animals inoculated with AdhTpn demonstrated a significant increase in CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells and CD11c(+) dendritic cells infiltrating the tumors. Provocatively, whereas syngeneic mice bearing tumors that were inoculated with AdhTpn a significant reduction in tumor growth and increased survival compared with vector controls, combining AdhTpn inoculation with AdhTAP1 resulted in a significant augmentation of protection from tumor-induced death than either component alone. CONCLUSIONS This is the first demonstration that Tpn alone can enhance survival and immunity against tumors but additionally suggests that Tpn and TAP should be used together as components of immunotherapeutic vaccine protocols to eradicate tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanmei Lou
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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