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Xiong W, Li WH, Jiang YX, Liu S, Ai YQ, Liu R, Chang L, Zhang M, Wang XL, Bai H, Wang H, Zheng R, Tan J. Parecoxib: an Enhancer of Radiation Therapy for Colorectal Cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2015; 16:627-33. [DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2015.16.2.627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Lee MH, Kachroo P, Pagano PC, Yanagawa J, Wang G, Walser TC, Krysan K, Sharma S, John MS, Dubinett SM, Lee JM. Combination Treatment with Apricoxib and IL-27 Enhances Inhibition of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Human Lung Cancer Cells through a STAT1 Dominant Pathway. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 6:468-477. [PMID: 26523208 DOI: 10.4172/1948-5956.1000310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) pathway has been implicated in the molecular pathogenesis of many malignancies, including lung cancer. Apricoxib, a selective COX-2 inhibitor, has been described to inhibit epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in human malignancies. The mechanism by which apricoxib may alter the tumor microenvironment by affecting EMT through other important signaling pathways is poorly defined. IL-27 has been shown to have anti-tumor activity and our recent study showed that IL-27 inhibited EMT through a STAT1 dominant pathway. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of apricoxib combined with IL-27 in inhibiting lung carcinogenesis by modulation of EMT through STAT signaling. METHODS AND RESULTS Western blot analysis revealed that IL-27 stimulation of human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines results in STAT1 and STAT3 activation, decreased Snail protein and mesenchymal markers (N-cadherin and vimentin) and a concomitant increase in expression of epithelial markers (E-cadherin, β-and γ-catenins), and inhibition of cell migration. The combination of apricoxib and IL-27 resulted in augmentation of STAT1 activation. However, IL-27 mediated STAT3 activation was decreased by the addition of apricoxib. STAT1 siRNA was used to determine the involvement of STAT1 pathway in the enhanced inhibition of EMT and cell migration by the combined IL-27 and apricoxib treatment. Pretreatment of cells with STAT1 siRNA inhibited the effect of combined IL-27 and apricoxib in the activation of STAT1 and STAT3. In addition, the augmented expression of epithelial markers, decreased expression mesenchymal markers, and inhibited cell migration by the combination treatment were also inhibited by STAT1 siRNA, suggesting that the STAT1 pathway is important in the enhanced effect from the combination treatment. CONCLUSION Combined apricoxib and IL-27 has an enhanced effect in inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and cell migration in human lung cancer cells through a STAT1 dominant pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Heon Lee
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Thoracic Surgery at the David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Puja Kachroo
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, USA ; Division of Thoracic Surgery at the David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Paul C Pagano
- Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jane Yanagawa
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Thoracic Surgery at the David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Gerald Wang
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, USA
| | - Tonya C Walser
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, USA
| | - Kostyantyn Krysan
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, USA
| | - Sherven Sharma
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Department of Head and Neck Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Molecular Gene Medicine Laboratory, Veterans Affair Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Maie St John
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Department of Head and Neck Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Steven M Dubinett
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, USA ; Molecular Gene Medicine Laboratory, Veterans Affair Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jay M Lee
- Lung Cancer Research Program, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, USA ; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, USA ; Division of Thoracic Surgery at the David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Ren F, Fan M, Mei J, Wu Y, Liu C, Pu Q, You Z, Liu L. Interferon-γ and celecoxib inhibit lung-tumor growth through modulating M2/M1 macrophage ratio in the tumor microenvironment. Drug Des Devel Ther 2014; 8:1527-38. [PMID: 25284985 PMCID: PMC4181549 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s66302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages play an important role in tumor growth and progression. These macrophages are heterogeneous with diverse functions, eg, M1 macrophages inhibit tumor growth, whereas M2 macrophages promote tumor growth. In this study, we found that IFNγ and/or celecoxib (cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor) treatment consistently inhibited tumor growth in a mouse lung cancer model. IFNγ alone and celecoxib alone increased the percentage of M1 macrophages but decreased the percentage of M2 macrophages in the tumors, and thus the M2/M1 macrophage ratio was reduced to 1.1 and 1.7 by IFNγ alone and celecoxib alone, respectively, compared to the M2/M1 macrophage ratio of 4.4 in the control group. A combination of IFNγ and celecoxib treatment reduced the M2/M1 macrophage ratio to 0.8. Furthermore, IFNγ and/or celecoxib treatment decreased expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, and VEGF, as well as the density of microvessels in the tumors, compared to the control group. This study provides the proof of principle that IFNγ and/or celecoxib treatment may inhibit lung-tumor growth through modulating the M2/M1 macrophage ratio in the tumor microenvironment, suggesting that IFNγ and celecoxib have potential to be further optimized into a new anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuqiang Ren
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, People's Republic of China ; Western China Collaborative Innovation Center for Early Diagnosis and Multidisciplinary Therapy of Lung Cancer, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingyu Fan
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, People's Republic of China ; Western China Collaborative Innovation Center for Early Diagnosis and Multidisciplinary Therapy of Lung Cancer, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiandong Mei
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, People's Republic of China ; Western China Collaborative Innovation Center for Early Diagnosis and Multidisciplinary Therapy of Lung Cancer, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongqiang Wu
- Regenerative Medicine Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengwu Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, People's Republic of China ; Western China Collaborative Innovation Center for Early Diagnosis and Multidisciplinary Therapy of Lung Cancer, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Pu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, People's Republic of China ; Western China Collaborative Innovation Center for Early Diagnosis and Multidisciplinary Therapy of Lung Cancer, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongbing You
- Department of Structural and Cellular Biology, New Orleans, LA, USA ; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New Orleans, LA, USA ; Tulane Cancer Center, New Orleans, LA, USA ; Louisiana Cancer Research Consortium, New Orleans, LA, USA ; Tulane Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA ; Tulane Center for Aging, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Lunxu Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, People's Republic of China ; Western China Collaborative Innovation Center for Early Diagnosis and Multidisciplinary Therapy of Lung Cancer, People's Republic of China
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Li W, Xu XL, Zhang J, Cai JH, Tang YX. Effects of cyclooxygenase inhibitors on survival time in ovarian cancer xenograft-bearing mice. Oncol Lett 2012. [PMID: 23205124 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2012.929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study was designed to investigate whether cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors (coxibs) could prolong survival time by attenuating the tumor growth of ovarian cancer xenograft-bearing mice. Tumor growth and survival time were observed and compared in mice which were treated with a COX-1 inhibitor (SC-560) and a COX-2 inhibitor (celecoxib) every other day for a 21 day period from the day of tumor formation. The trial lasted a total of 121 days. The combination therapy resulted in statistically significant inhibition of tumor size compared with the control group (P<0.05). Additionally, single treatment of SC-560 or celecoxib significantly prolonged the mean survival time of mice compared with the control group (P<0.05). We suggest that COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitors may improve survival and inhibit tumor growth, and that the tumor growth inhibition by coxibs may be the contributing factor for the prolonged survival time in mouse xenograft models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Department of Gynecology, Nanjing Medical University of Hangzhou Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310006, P.R. China
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Kirane A, Toombs JE, Larsen JE, Ostapoff KT, Meshaw KR, Zaknoen S, Brekken RA, Burrows FJ. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition increases tumor sensitivity to COX-2 inhibition by apricoxib. Carcinogenesis 2012; 33:1639-46. [PMID: 22678114 PMCID: PMC3514897 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgs195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Revised: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Although cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors, such as the late stage development drug apricoxib, exhibit antitumor activity, their mechanisms of action have not been fully defined. In this study, we characterized the mechanisms of action of apricoxib in HT29 colorectal carcinoma. Apricoxib was weakly cytotoxic toward naive HT29 cells in vitro but inhibited tumor growth markedly in vivo. Pharmacokinetic analyses revealed that in vivo drug levels peaked at 2-4 µM and remained sufficient to completely inhibit prostaglandin E(2) production, but failed to reach concentrations cytotoxic for HT29 cells in monolayer culture. Despite this, apricoxib significantly inhibited tumor cell proliferation and induced apoptosis without affecting blood vessel density, although it did promote vascular normalization. Strikingly, apricoxib treatment induced a dose-dependent reversal of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), as shown by robust upregulation of E-cadherin and the virtual disappearance of vimentin and ZEB1 protein expression. In vitro, either anchorage-independent growth conditions or forced EMT sensitized HT29 and non-small cell lung cancer cells to apricoxib by 50-fold, suggesting that the occurrence of EMT may actually increase the dependence of colon and lung carcinoma cells on COX-2. Taken together, these data suggest that acquisition of mesenchymal characteristics sensitizes carcinoma cells to apricoxib resulting in significant single-agent antitumor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Kirane
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology and
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,
Dallas, TX75390 USA
| | - Jason E Toombs
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology and
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,
Dallas, TX75390 USA
| | - Jill E Larsen
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,
Dallas, TX75390 USA
| | - Katherine T Ostapoff
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology and
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,
Dallas, TX75390 USA
| | | | - Sara Zaknoen
- Tragara Pharmaceuticals, Inc,
San Diego, CA 92130, USA
| | - Rolf A Brekken
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology and
- Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center,
Dallas, TX75390 USA
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Kirane A, Toombs JE, Ostapoff K, Carbon JG, Zaknoen S, Braunfeld J, Schwarz RE, Burrows FJ, Brekken RA. Apricoxib, a novel inhibitor of COX-2, markedly improves standard therapy response in molecularly defined models of pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2012; 18:5031-42. [PMID: 22829202 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-12-0453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE COX-2 is expressed highly in pancreatic cancer and implicated in tumor progression. COX-2 inhibition can reduce tumor growth and augment therapy. The precise function of COX-2 in tumors remains poorly understood, but it is implicated in tumor angiogenesis, evasion of apoptosis, and induction of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Current therapeutic regimens for pancreatic cancer are minimally effective, highlighting the need for novel treatment strategies. Here, we report that apricoxib, a novel COX-2 inhibitor in phase II clinical trials, significantly enhances the efficacy of gemcitabine/erlotinib in preclinical models of pancreatic cancer. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Human pancreatic cell lines were evaluated in vitro and in vivo for response to apricoxib ± standard-of-care therapy (gemcitabine + erlotinib). Tumor tissue underwent posttreatment analysis for cell proliferation, viability, and EMT phenotype. Vascular parameters were also determined. RESULTS COX-2 inhibition reduced the IC(50) of gemcitabine ± erlotinib in six pancreatic cancer cell lines tested in vitro. Furthermore, apricoxib increased the antitumor efficacy of standard combination therapy in several orthotopic xenograft models. In vivo apricoxib combination therapy was only effective at reducing tumor growth and metastasis in tumors with elevated COX-2 activity. In each model examined, treatment with apricoxib resulted in vascular normalization without a decrease in microvessel density and promotion of an epithelial phenotype by tumor cells regardless of basal COX-2 expression. CONCLUSIONS Apricoxib robustly reverses EMT and augments standard therapy without reducing microvessel density and warrants further clinical evaluation in patients with pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Kirane
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, The Hamon Center for Therapeutic Oncology Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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Mandal PK, Freiter EM, Bagsby AL, Robertson FM, McMurray JS. Efficient synthesis of apricoxib, CS-706, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, and evaluation of inhibition of prostaglandin E2 production in inflammatory breast cancer cells. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:6071-3. [PMID: 21903394 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Revised: 08/10/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
An efficient synthesis of apricoxib (CS-706), a selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor, was developed using copper catalyzed homoallylic ketone formation from methyl 4-ethoxybenzoate followed by ozonolysis to an aldehyde, and condensation with sulfanilamide. This method provided multi-gram access of aprocoxib in good yield. Apricoxib exhibited potency equal to celecoxib at inhibition of prostaglandin E2 synthesis in two inflammatory breast cancer cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pijus K Mandal
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, M D Anderson Cancer Center, 1862 East Road, Houston, TX 77054-3005, USA
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Wang JX, Zhang KG, Li C, Li XC, Wang XQ, Ding M. Significance of expression of COX-2 and GCS in gastric cancer. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2011; 19:2171-2175. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v19.i20.2171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and glucosylceramide synthase (GCS) in gastric cancer and to analyze their clinical significance.
METHODS: Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the expression of COX-2 and GCS in 63 cases of gastric cancer tissues and 30 cases of non-gastric cancer tissues. The correlation of COX-2 and GCS expression with patient's age, sex, tumor histological type, differentiation, and lymph node metastasis was analyzed.
RESULTS: The positive rate of COX-2 expression in gastric cancer was higher than that in non-cancerous tissue (87.3% vs 36.7%, P < 0.05). The positive rate of GCS expression in gastric cancer was also higher than that in non-cancerous tissue (49.2% vs 23.3%, P < 0.05). Neither COX-2 nor GCS expression was related with age, sex, tumor differentiation, depth of invasion or histological type (all P > 0.05). The positive rate of COX-2 in patients with lymph node metastasis was significantly higher than that in patients without lymph node metastasis (100% vs 69.2%, P < 0.05), whereas the positive rate of GST-π was not related with lymph node metastasis (P > 0.05). There is a significant correlation between the expression of COX-2 and that of GST-π in gastric cancer (r = 0.724, P = 0.004).
CONCLUSION: GCS is highly expressed in gastric cancer and may be involved in tumor drug resistance. COX-2 may mediate drug resistance by influencing the expression of GCS in gastric cancer.
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Reckamp K, Gitlitz B, Chen LC, Patel R, Milne G, Syto M, Jezior D, Zaknoen S. Biomarker-based phase I dose-escalation, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic study of oral apricoxib in combination with erlotinib in advanced nonsmall cell lung cancer. Cancer 2010; 117:809-18. [PMID: 20922800 DOI: 10.1002/cncr.25473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Revised: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apricoxib, a novel once-daily selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, was investigated in combination with erlotinib for recurrent stage IIIB/IV nonsmall cell lung cancer to determine the maximum tolerated dose, dose-limiting toxicity, and recommended phase II dose (RP2D) based on changes in urinary prostaglandin E₂ metabolite (PGE-M). METHODS Patients received escalating doses of apricoxib (100, 200, and 400 mg/day) in combination with erlotinib 150 mg/day until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. Urinary PGE-M was used to assess biologic activity and inform the optimal biologic dose. RESULTS Twenty patients were treated (3 at 100 mg; 3 at 200 mg; 14 at 400 mg apricoxib) with a median of 4 cycles (range, 2-14 cycles); 8 patients (40%) received prior EGFR-directed therapies. No dose-limiting toxicity was observed. Study drug-related adverse events (AEs) included diarrhea, rash, dry skin, anemia, fatigue, and increased serum creatinine; 4 patients had grade ≥ 3 drug-related AEs (diarrhea, perforated duodenal ulcer, hypophosphatemia, and deep vein thrombosis). The RP2D was 400 mg/day based on safety, biologic activity based on decreases in urinary PGE-M, and pharmacokinetics. One patient had a partial response, and 11 had stable disease. Stable disease was observed in patients who had received prior EGFR inhibitor therapy but was greater in patients not previously treated with an EGFR inhibitor. Seventeen patients had elevated urinary PGE-M at baseline, and 14 (70%) had a decrease from baseline, which was associated with disease control. CONCLUSIONS Apricoxib plus erlotinib was well tolerated and yielded a 60% disease control rate. A phase II trial is currently investigating 400 mg/day apricoxib plus 150 mg/day erlotinib in patients selected based on change in urinary PGE-M.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Reckamp
- City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center, Duarte, California, USA.
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Amelioration of cisplatin nephrotoxicity by genetic or pharmacologic blockade of prostaglandin synthesis. Kidney Int 2010; 79:77-88. [PMID: 20844471 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2010.331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Nephrotoxicity is a common complication of cisplatin chemotherapy that limits its clinical use. Here, we determined whether arachidonic acid metabolism has a role in the pathogenesis of cisplatin nephrotoxicity in mice. Three days following cisplatin injection, wild-type mice displayed renal functional and structural abnormalities consistent with nephrotoxicity accompanied by elevated circulating and renal levels of TNF-α and renal levels of IL-1β, subunits of NADPH oxidase, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, and PGE(2). These indices of kidney injury, inflammation, oxidative stress, and arachidonate metabolism were all diminished in microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) null mice; a phenotype recapitulated by treatment of wild-type mice with the COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib. Following cisplatin administration, there was paralleled induction of COX-2 and mPGES-1 in renal parenchymal cells. Interestingly, mPGES-1 null mice were not protected from acute kidney injury caused by ischemia-reperfusion or endotoxin. Hence, our results suggest the activation of COX-2/mPGES-1 pathway in renal parenchymal cells may selectively mediate cisplatin-induced renal injury. This may offer a novel therapeutic target for management of the adverse effect of cisplatin chemotherapy.
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Abstract
COX-2 is an inducible enzyme which is over expressed in gastric cancer tissues and plays an important role in the incidence, development and prognosis of gastric cancer by regulating the formation of vessel, inducing mutations, immune suppression, suppression of apoptosis, changing the activity of adhesion molecule to promote tumor metastasis, and so on. COX selective inhibitors can be used as one of the basic anti-tumor drugs because of their tumor suppression function in the future.
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