Herbal medicine containing aristolochic acid and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with hepatitis B virus infection

Aristolochic acid-induced dyslipidemia and hepatotoxicity: The potential role of FXR and AHR receptors

Aristolochic acids (AAs) represent a class of nitrophenanthrene carboxylic acids naturally existing or accidentally mixed in herbal medicines or crops, which have long been recognized for causing nephropathy. Recently, the linkage between AAs and liver injury has become a concern; however, the current understanding of the mechanism or mode of action (MOA) is limited. In the present study, we investigated nuclear receptor-mediated MOA associated with AAs-induced liver injury including dyslipidemia and hepatotoxicity. Bioinformatic analysis of AAI-interacting genes indicated nuclear receptor-mediated metabolizing pathways; Transcriptomic profiling of AAs-exposed rats with liver injury suggested FXR-, NRF2-, and AHR- mediated pathways in the injured livers of the rats. Mechanistic investigation using HepG2 cells indicated AAI-induced hepatic lipid accumulation by elevating Triglyceride (TG) through inhibition of the FXR. In addition, AAI-induced hepatocellular damage by activating the AHR pathway, which further generated ROS and activated the NRF2 pathway. Together, these results provided new clues for researchers who are interested in chemical-induced liver injury.

Liver Cancer: Progress and Priorities

Liver cancer, the sixth most frequently occurring cancer in the world and the third most common cause of cancer mortality, has wide geographical variation in both incidence and mortality rates. At the end of the 20th century, incidence rates began declining in some high-rate areas and increasing in some lower-rate areas. These trends were undoubtedly driven by the shifting contributions of both well-established and more novel risk factors. While notable strides have been made in combating some major risk factors, such as hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus, the emergence of metabolic conditions as important drivers of liver cancer risk indicates that much work remains to be done in prevention. As liver cancer is strongly associated with economic and social deprivation, research, early-diagnosis, and treatment among disadvantaged populations are of paramount importance.

Unveiling correlations between aristolochic acids and liver cancer: spatiotemporal heterogeneity phenomenon

Aristolochic acids are a class of naturally occurring compounds in Aristolochiaceae that have similar structural skeletons and chemical properties. Exposure to aristolochic acids is a risk factor for severe kidney disease and urinary system cancer. However, the carcinogenicity of aristolochic acids to the liver, which is the main site of aristolochic acid metabolism, is unclear. Although the characteristic fingerprint of aristolochic acid-induced mutations has been detected in the liver and aristolochic acids are known to be hepatotoxic, whether aristolochic acids can directly cause liver cancer is yet to be verified. This review summarizes the findings of long-term carcinogenicity studies of aristolochic acids in experimental animals. We propose that spatiotemporal heterogeneity in the carcinogenicity of these phytochemicals could explain why direct evidence of aristolochic acids causing liver cancer has never been found in adult individuals. We also summarized the reported approaches to mitigate aristolochic acid-induced hepatotoxicity to better address the associated global safety issue and provide directions and recommendations for future investigation.

Hepatocyte-Specific Yap1 Knockout Maintained the Liver Homeostasis of Lipid Metabolism in Mice

Introduction

Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) is a crucial molecule in the Hippo pathway. The impact of hepatocyte-specific Yap1 knockout (Yap1 LKO) on hepatic lipid droplets (LD) and pePLIN2 in metabolic fatty liver has not been reported. This study aims to explore whether Yap1 LKO could offer a protective effect in a liver injury model.

Methods

Three-week-old Yap1 LKO and Yap1 Flox mice were given aristolochic acid I (AAI) combined carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) establish liver injury model. Eight-week-old Yap1 LKO and Yap1 Flox mice were fed with a high-fat diet for 18 weeks to establish obesity-related liver injury model. Further biochemical, histomorphological, immunohistochemical, and lipidomic analyses were performed on serum and liver tissues of these mice to elucidate the effects of hepatocyte-specific Yap1 knockout on hepatic lipid metabolism.

Results

Yap1 LKO reduced triglyceride (TG) content and PLIN2 expression level in the liver during the intervention of AAI combined CCl4. Moreover, Yap1 LKO improved lipid metabolism homeostasis in the liver by increasing the beneficial lipid molecules and reducing the harmful lipid molecules through lipidomics. Finally, Yap1 LKO reduced TG content in the serum and liver, hepatic vacuolar degeneration, and hepatic PLIN2 expression level in mice fed with a high-fat diet (HFD).

Conclusion

Yap1 LKO is protective in regulating liver and blood TG when induced with toxic substances AAI combined CCl4 and a high-fat diet.

Risk of secondary primary malignancies in survivors of upper tract urothelial carcinoma: A nationwide population-based analysis

BACKGROUND

To investigate the cancer types and risk factors of secondary primary malignancy (SPM) in patients with upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC) in Taiwan.

METHODS

Using National Health Insurance Research Dataset and catastrophic illness registry, we enrolled newly diagnosed UTUC patients from 2000 to 2013. Those without catastrophic illness registration were excluded from the study. The cancer types and hazard ratios (HRs) of subsequent SPMs were calculated according to the antecedent malignancy. We analyzed the risk factors for developing SPMs using multivariate Cox proportional hazard models.

RESULTS

A total of 9050 UTUC patients were registered and 2187 (24.2%) patients developed SPMs during the study period. As compared with primary UTUC, the relative risk ratios of SPM was 2.5 folds and 18% higher in those with antecedent non-UC malignancy and with bladder cancer history, respectively. Totally, 387 (37.8%) of 1022 UTUC patients with antecedent non-UC malignancy developed subsequent SPM after UTUC diagnosis. The antecedent and subsequent cancer types are similar and kidney cancer is most common, followed by hepatoma. Multivariate analysis showed that a history of antecedent non-UC malignancy is the most unfavorable factor for SPM development (HR, 2.50; 95% CI, 2.23-2.81), followed by liver disease, male gender, antecedent bladder cancer history, age ≥ 75 years, and chronic kidney disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study, conducted in Taiwan and involving 9050 UTUC patients, meticulously examined the types of SPM and the associated risk factors. Our research unearthed several pivotal discoveries: a preceding history of non-UC malignancies emerged as the single most influential factor contributing to the occurrence of subsequent cancers, followed by liver disease, male gender, antecedent bladder cancer history, age ≥75 years, and chronic kidney disease. Futhermore, kidney cancer emerged as the predominant subsequent malignancy, closely trailed by hepatoma..

No Incidence of Liver Cancer Was Observed in A Retrospective Study of Patients with Aristolochic Acid Nephropathy

OBJECTIVE

To assess the risk of aristolochic acid (AA)-associated cancer in patients with AA nephropathy (AAN).

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted on patients diagnosed with AAN at Peking University First Hospital from January 1997 to December 2014. Long-term surveillance and follow-up data were analyzed to investigate the influence of different factors on the prevalence of cancer. The primary endpoint was the incidence of liver cancer, and the secondary endpoint was the incidence of urinary cancer during 1 year after taking AA-containing medication to 2014.

RESULTS

A total of 337 patients diagnosed with AAN were included in this study. From the initiation of taking AA to the termination of follow-up, 39 patients were diagnosed with cancer. No cases of liver cancer were observed throughout the entire follow-up period, with urinary cancer being the predominant type (34/39, 87.17%). Logistic regression analysis showed that age, follow-up period, and diabetes were potential risk factors, however, the dosage of the drug was not significantly associated with urinary cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

No cases of liver cancer were observed at the end of follow-up. However, a high prevalence of urinary cancer was observed in AAN patients. Establishing a direct causality between AA and HCC is challenging.

MiR-766-3p and miR-671-5p attenuate aristolochic acid-induced hepatotoxicity by directly targeting the key bioactivating enzyme NQO1

Aristolochic acid (AA) as an emerging contaminant in herbal medicines or crops has been well-recognized for causing nephropathy since 1990s. Over the last decade, mounting evidence has linked AA to liver injury; however, the underlying mechanism is poorly elucidated. MicroRNAs respond to environmental stress and mediate multiple biological processes, thus showing biomarker potentials prognostically or diagnostically. In the present study, we investigated the role of miRNAs in AA-induced hepatotoxicity, specifically in regulating NQO1, the key enzyme responsible for AA bioactivation. In silico analysis showed that hsa-miR-766-3p and hsa-miR-671-5p were significantly associated with AAI exposure as well as NQO1 induction. A 28-day rat experiment of 20 mg/kg AA exposure demonstrated a 3-fold increase of NQO1 and an almost 50 % decrease of the homologous miR-671 that were accompanied with liver injury, which was consistent with in silico prediction. Further mechanistic investigation using Huh7 cells with IC50 of AAI at 146.5 µM showed both hsa-miR-766-3p and hsa-miR-671-5p were able to directly bind to and down-regulate NQO1 basal expression. In addition, both miRNAs were shown to suppress AAI-induced NQO1 upregulation in Huh7 cells at a cytotoxic concentration of 70 μM, and consequently alleviate AAI-induced cellular effects, including cytotoxicity and oxidative stress. Together, these data illustrate that miR-766-3p and miR-671-5p attenuate AAI-induced hepatotoxicity, and thus have monitoring and diagnostic potentials.

Grape seed extract proanthocyanidin antagonizes aristolochic acid I-induced liver injury in rats by activating PI3K-AKT pathway

Aristolochic acid is internationally recognized as a carcinogen. It has been shown that the main toxic mechanism of aristolochic acid on the liver and kidney is the induction of ROS-induced oxidative stress damage. To investigate whether proanthocyanidins (GSPE), a natural antioxidant product from grape seed extract, could antagonize AA-I-induced liver injury. Thirty-two SD rats were selected and divided into aristolochic acid exposure group (AA-I), normal control group, GSPE group and GSPE intervention group. The protective effects of GSPE on AA-I liver injury were evaluated by examining the body weight, liver index, liver function and liver pathological sections of rats. The results of body weight, liver index, liver function and liver pathological sections of rats showed that GSPE had antagonistic effects on AA-I-induced liver injury. antioxidant enzyme activity in the GSPE intervention group was significantly higher than that in the aristolochic acid group, apoptotic cells were significantly lower than that in the aristolochic acid group, protein and mRNA expression of PI3K-AKT and BCL-2 were significantly higher than that in the aristolochic acid group, BAX, The protein and mRNA expression of BAX, CASPAES-3, CASPAES-9 were significantly lower than those of the aristolochic acid group. GSPE can antagonize aristolochic acid-induced hepatotoxicity, and its mechanism of action is to antagonize aristolochic acid I-induced liver injury by inhibiting PI3K-AKT pathway-mediated hepatocyte apoptosis.

Integrated genomic analyses of hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Genomic alterations play important roles in the development of cancer. We explored the impact of protein-coding genes and transcriptomic changes on clinical and molecular alterations in Taiwanese hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients.

METHODS

We analyzed 147 whole-exome sequencing and 100 RNA sequencing datasets of HCC and compared them with The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-Liver Hepatocellular Carcinoma cohort and develop a panel of 81 apoptosis-related genes for molecular classification.

RESULTS

TERT (50%), TP53 (25%), CTNNB1 (14%), ARID1A (12%), and KMT2C (11%) were the most common genetic alterations of cancer-related genes. ALDH2 and KMT2C mutated at much higher frequencies in our cohort than in TCGA, whereas CTNNB1 was found only in 14% of our Taiwanese patients. A high germline mutation rate of ALDH2 in the APOBEC mutational signature and herb drug-related aristolochic acid-associated signature was also observed. Groups A and B of HCC were identified when we used apoptosis-related genes for molecular classification. The latter group, which had poorer survival outcomes, had significantly more aDC, CD4+ Tem, macrophages M2, NKT, plasma cells, and Th1 cells, and less CD4+ memory T cells, CD8+ Tcm, cDC, iDC, and Th2 cells, as well as more inter-chromosome fusion genes. Metatranscriptomic analysis revealed 54 cases of HBV infection. Moreover, we found that the main target gene of HBV integration is ALB.

CONCLUSIONS

Unique genomic alterations were observed in our Taiwanese HCC patients. Molecular classification using apoptosis-related genes could lead to new therapeutic approaches for HCC.

Dissection of cellular and molecular mechanisms of aristolochic acid-induced hepatotoxicity via single-cell transcriptomics

Background

Aristolochic acids (AAs), a class of carcinogenic and mutagenic natural products from Aristolochia and Asarum plants, are well-known to be responsible for inducing nephrotoxicity and urothelial carcinoma. Recently, accumulating evidence suggests that exposure to AAs could also induce hepatotoxicity and even hepatocellular carcinoma, though the mechanisms are poorly defined.

Methods

Here, we aimed to dissect the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of aristolochic acid I (AAI)-induced hepatotoxicity by using advanced single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) and proteomics techniques. We established the first single-cell atlas of mouse livers in response to AAI.

Results

In hepatocytes, our results indicated that AAI activated NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways, which may contribute to the inflammatory response and apoptosis. In liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), AAI activated multiple oxidative stress and inflammatory associated signaling pathways and induced apoptosis. Importantly, AAI induced infiltration of cytotoxic T cells and activation of proinflammatory macrophage and neutrophil cells in the liver to produce inflammatory cytokines to aggravate inflammation.

Conclusions

Collectively, our study provides novel knowledge of AAs-induced molecular characteristics of hepatotoxicity at a single-cell level and suggests future treatment options for AAs associated hepatotoxicity.

Clinical value of identifying genes that inhibit hepatocellular carcinomas

INTRODUCTION

Primary liver cancer is a major health problem being the sixth most frequent cancer in the world and the fourth most frequent cause of cancer-related death in the world. The most common histological type of liver cancer is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, 75-80%).

AREAS COVERED

Based on primary literature, this review provides an updated analysis of studies of genetic characterization of HCC at the level of gene mutation profiling, copy number alterations and gene expression, with definition of molecular subgroups and identification of some molecular biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

EXPERT OPINION

A detailed and comprehensive study of the genetic abnormalities characterizing different HCC subsets represents a fundamental tool for a better understanding of the disease heterogeneity and for the identification of subgroups of patients responding or resistant to targeted treatments and for the discovery of new therapeutic targets. It is expected that a comprehensive characterization of these tumors may provide a fundamental contribution to improve the survival of a subset of HCC patients. Immunotherapy represents a new fundamental strategy for the treatment of HCC.

Aristolochic acid-associated cancers: a public health risk in need of global action

Aristolochic acids (AAs) are a group of naturally occurring compounds present in many plant species of the Aristolochiaceae family. Exposure to AA is a significant risk factor for severe nephropathy, and urological and hepatobiliary cancers (among others) that are often recurrent and characterized by the prominent mutational fingerprint of AA. However, herbal medicinal products that contain AA continue to be manufactured and marketed worldwide with inadequate regulation, and possible environmental exposure routes receive little attention. As the trade of food and dietary supplements becomes increasingly globalized, we propose that further inaction on curtailing AA exposure will have far-reaching negative effects on the disease trends of AA-associated cancers. Our Review aims to systematically present the historical and current evidence for the mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of AA, and the effect of removing sources of AA exposure on cancer incidence trends. We discuss the persisting challenges of assessing the scale of AA-related carcinogenicity, and the obstacles that must be overcome in curbing AA exposure and preventing associated cancers. Overall, this Review aims to strengthen the case for the implementation of prevention measures against AA's multifaceted, detrimental and potentially fully preventable effects on human cancer development.

Molecular Classification of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Using Wnt-Hippo Signaling Pathway-Related Genes

Simple Summary

The characters of Taiwanese hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are different from other parts of the world. We characterized the molecular features of HCC using a newly developed classification system based on the expression of the Wnt–Hippo signaling pathway-related genes. We analyzed the data in terms of prognostic value, transcriptome features, immune infiltration, and clinical characteristics, and compared the resulting subclasses with previously published classifications. A new molecular classification method based on a 272 gene panel of Wnt–Hippo pathways that may provide a new target for the treatment.

Abstract

In Taiwan, a combination of hepatitis B and C infection, economic boom-related food and alcohol overconsumption, and Chinese medicine prescriptions has led to a high rate of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the causative factors and underlying tumor biology for this unique HCC environment have not been identified. Wnt and Hippo signaling pathways play an important regulatory role in HCC development, and their functions are generally considered as positive and negative regulators of cell proliferation, respectively. In this study, we characterized the molecular features of HCC using a newly developed classification system based on the expression of the Wnt–Hippo signaling pathway-related genes. RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed on liver tumor tissues from 100 patients with liver cancer. RNA-Seq data for 272 previously characterized Wnt–Hippo signaling pathway-related genes were used for hierarchical clustering. We analyzed the data in terms of prognostic value, transcriptome features, immune infiltration, and clinical characteristics, and compared the resulting subclasses with previously published classifications. Four subclasses of HCC (HCCW1–4) were identified. Subclass HCCW1 displayed the highest PCDHB4 expression. Subclass HCCW2 displayed lower Edmondson–Steiner grades (I and II) and CTNNB1 mutation frequencies. Subclass HCCW3 was associated with a good prognosis, the highest PCDHGB7 expression, high CD8+ naïve T cells abundance, and relatively low TP53 mutation rates. Subclass HCCW4 was associated with a poor prognosis, the highest PCDHB2 and PCDHB6 expression, a relatively high abundance of Th1 cells, NKT and class-switched memory B cells, relatively low enrichment of cDC, iDC, and CD4+ memory T cells, and high Edmondson–Steiner grades (III and IV). We also identified Wnt–Hippo signaling pathway-related genes that may influence immune cell infiltration. We developed a panel of 272 Wnt–Hippo signaling pathway-related genes to classify HCC into four groups based on Taiwanese HCC and The Cancer Genome Atlas Liver Hepatocellular Carcinoma datasets. This novel molecular classification system may aid the treatment of HCC.

Asari Radix et Rhizoma consumption lacks relevance for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients: A retrospective cohort study

Objective

Although some studies have linked Asari Radix et Rhizoma (Asari Radix) administration to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), few studies have examined the association between the development of HCC and use of Asari Radix among patients in mainland China. This study aimed to evaluate the real-world association between Asari Radix and HCC in patients to strengthen the understanding of Asari Radix safety.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study among hepatitis B virus (HBV)-monoinfected patients and non-HBV-monoinfected patients were performed. Patients over 18 years of age were eligible for inclusion. Prescription records of inpatients and outpatients were inquired to distinguish Asari Radix users and nonusers. The risk of developing HCC among Asari Radix users and nonusers in the HBV cohort and the non-HBV cohort was analyzed.

Results

There were 49 500 HBV and 133 148 non-HBV patients involved in the two cohorts. Among HBV patients (2 901 users; 46 599 nonusers), the prevalence of HCC in Asari Radix users was lower than that in nonusers (145.70 vs. 265.43 per 105). Among non-HBV patients (5 042 users; 128 106 nonusers), the prevalence of HCC in Asari Radix users was lower than that in nonusers (81.62 vs. 134.11 per 105). None of the hazard ratios (HRs) of Asari Radix exposure ranging from 1 g to 200 g in the two cohorts showed correlation between Asari Radix exposure and hepatocarcinogenesis.

Conclusion

An obvious irrelevancy was found between the consumption of Asari Radix and HCC development both in patients with and in those without HBV infection. Use of Asari Radix under 200 g appears safe in terms of HCC risk in the Chinese population; further prospective studies are needed to confirm our results.

Aristolochic acid and the risk of cancers in patients with type 2 diabetes: Nationwide population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Both aristolochic acid (AA) exposure and diabetic can increase risk of certain cancers,whetherAAexposureincreases cancer risk in diabetic patientsisunknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between the use of Chinese herbal products containing AA and the risk of cancer in diabetic patients.

METHODS

A cohort study was conducted using the National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan. Patients older than 18 years who were diagnosed with diabetes between 1997 and 2010 were enrolled in our cohort. The use of Chinese herbal products containing AA was recorded from the beginning of 1997 until the ban of herbs containing AA in November 2003. Patients were individually tracked to identify cancer incidence between 1997 and 2013. Only patients who visited traditional Chinese medicine clinics between 1997 and 1 year before the end of follow-up were included in the cohort to ensure comparability. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to calculate the hazard ratio for the association between the use of Chinese herbal products containing AA and the occurrence of cancer.

RESULTS

Among the 430 377 male and 431 956 female patients with diabetes enrolled in our cohort, 37 554 and 31 535 cancer diagnoses were recorded during the study period, respectively. The use of AA-containing herbal products was associated with a significantly higher risk of liver, colorectum, kidney, bladder, prostate, pelvis, and ureter cancer in a dose-dependent manner. An increased risk of extrahepatic bile duct cancer in women was also associated with AA exposure at doses of more than 500 mg.

CONCLUSIONS

Association between AA exposure and the risk of some cancers were found in this study. AA exposure might increase risk of kidney,bladder,pelvis, ureter,liver,colorectum,andprostatecancer in all patientsandextrahepatic bile duct cancerin women.

Integration of Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Data to Compare the Hepatotoxicity of Neonatal and Adult Mice Exposed to Aristolochic Acid I

Aristolochic acid (AA) is a group of structurally related compounds what have been used to treat various diseases in recent decades. Aristolochic acid I (AAI), an important ingredient, has been associated with tumorigenesis. Recently, some studies indicated that AAI could induce liver injury in mice of different age, but comprehensive mechanisms of AAI-induced differences in liver injury in various age groups have not yet been elucidated. This study aims to evaluate the causal relationship between AAI-induced liver injury and age based on neonatal mice and adult mice. A survival experiment indicated that all neonatal mice survived. Moreover, the adult mice in the high-dose AAI group all died, whereas half of the adult mice in the low-dose AAI group died. In observation experiments, AAI induced more severe liver injury in neonatal mice than adult mice under long-term than short-term exposure. Furthermore, integrated metabolomics and transcriptomics indicated that AAI disturbing steroid hormone biosynthesis, arachidonic acid metabolism, the drug metabolism-cytochrome P450 pathway and glycerophospholipid metabolism induced neonatal mice liver injury. The important role of age in AAI-induced liver injury was illustrated in our study. This study also lays a solid foundation for scientific supervision of AA safety.

Development of an immunochromatographic test strip for the rapid detection of aristolochic acid A in herbal medicinal materials

INTRODUCTION

Plants containing aristolochic acid and its derivatives are nephrotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic to humans; chronic diet poisoning caused by the aristolochic acid is the cause of endemic (Balkan) nephropathy and related cancers.

OBJECTIVE

To develop a colloidal gold immunochromatographic test strip (ICS) based on the competitive format for the rapid detection of aristolochic acid A (AA-A) in herbal medicinal materials.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the ICS based on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), the antigen [AA-A-bovine serum albumin (BSA)], and goat anti-mouse IgG were drawn on the nitrocellulose membrane as the test line (T line) and the control line (C line), respectively. Monoclonal antibody (MAb)-AuNP conjugates were sprayed onto the conjugate pad. The sensitivity of the ICS was 6 ng/mL, and the test was completed in 10 min. The analysis of AA-A in traditional Chinese medicine samples showed that the ICS results were in good agreement with those obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography methods.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrated that the ICS test could be used as a reliable, rapid, cost-effective, and convenient qualitative tool for on-site screening techniques to detect AA-A in herbal medicinal materials without any special instrumentation.

Aristolochic acid I promoted clonal expansion but did not induce hepatocellular carcinoma in adult rats

Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is a well-known nephrotoxic carcinogen, which is currently reported to be also associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Whether AAI is a direct hepatocarcinogen remains controversial. In this study we investigated the association between AAI exposure and HCC in adult rats using a sensitive rat liver bioassay with several cofactors. Formation of glutathione S-transferase placental form-positive (GST-P+) foci was used as the marker for preneoplastic lesions/clonal expansion. We first conducted a medium-term (8 weeks) study to investigate whether AAI had any tumor-initiating or -promoting activity. Then a long-term (52 weeks) study was conducted to determine whether AAI can directly induce HCC. We showed that oral administration of single dose of AAI (20, 50, or 100 mg/kg) in combination with partial hepatectomy (PH) to stimulate liver proliferation did not induce typical GST-P+ foci in liver. In the 8-week study, only high dose of AAI (10 mg · kg-1 · d-1, 5 days a week for 6 weeks) in combination with PH significantly increased the number and area of GST-P+ foci initiated by diethylnitrosamine (DEN) in liver. Similarly, only high dose of AAI (10 mg· kg-1· d-1, 5 days a week for 52 weeks) in combination with PH significantly increased the number and area of hepatic GST-P+ foci in the 52-week study. No any nodules or HCC were observed in liver of any AAI-treated groups. In contrast, long-term administration of AAI (0.1, 1, 10 mg· kg-1· d-1) time- and dose-dependently caused death due to the occurrence of cancers in the forestomach, intestine, and/or kidney. Besides, AAI-DNA adducts accumulated in the forestomach, kidney, and liver in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Taken together, AAI promotes clonal expansion only in the high-dose group but did not induce any nodules or HCC in liver of adult rats till their deaths caused by cancers developed in the forestomach, intestine, and/or kidney. Findings from our animal studies will pave the way for further large-scale epidemiological investigation of the associations between AA and HCC.

Cancer Etiology and Prevention Principle: "1 + X"

Cancer was previously thought to be an inevitable aspect of human health with no effective treatments. However, the results of in-depth cancer research suggest that most types of cancer may be preventable. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the disparities in cancer burden caused by different risk factors is essential to inform and improve cancer prevention and control. Here, we propose the cancer etiology and prevention principle "1 + X," where 1 denotes the primary risk factor for a cancer and X represents the secondary contributing risk factors for the cancer. We elaborate upon the "1 + X" principle with respect to risk factors for several different cancer types. The "1 + X" principle can be used for precise prevention of cancer by eliminating the main cause of a cancer and minimizing the contributing factors at the same time.

Co-Exposure to Aristolochic Acids I and II Increases DNA Adduct Formation Responsible for Aristolochic Acid I-Mediated Carcinogenicity in Rats

The plant extract aristolochic acid (AA), containing aristolochic acids I (AAI) and II (AAII) as major components, causes aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN) and Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN), unique renal diseases associated with upper urothelial cancer. Recently (Chemical Research in Toxicology 33(11), 2804–2818, 2020), we showed that the in vivo metabolism of AAI and AAII in Wistar rats is influenced by their co-exposure (i.e., AAI/AAII mixture). Using the same rat model, we investigated how exposure to the AAI/AAII mixture can influence AAI and AAII DNA adduct formation (i.e., AA-mediated genotoxicity). Using ³²P-postlabelling, we found that AA-DNA adduct formation was increased in the livers and kidneys of rats treated with AAI/AAII mixture compared to rats treated with AAI or AAII alone. Measuring the activity of enzymes involved in AA metabolism, we showed that enhanced AA-DNA adduct formation might be caused partially by both decreased AAI detoxification as a result of hepatic CYP2C11 inhibition during treatment with AAI/AAII mixture and by hepatic or renal NQO1 induction, the key enzyme predominantly activating AA to DNA adducts. Moreover, our results indicate that AAII might act as an inhibitor of AAI detoxification in vivo. Consequently, higher amounts of AAI might remain in liver and kidney tissues, which can be reductively activated, resulting in enhanced AAI DNA adduct formation. Collectively, these results indicate that AAII present in the plant extract AA enhances the genotoxic properties of AAI (i.e., AAI DNA adduct formation). As patients suffering from AAN and BEN are always exposed to the plant extract (i.e., AAI/AAII mixture), our findings are crucial to better understanding host factors critical for AAN- and BEN-associated urothelial malignancy.

Genomics of Viral Hepatitis-Associated Liver Tumors

Virus-related liver carcinogenesis is one of the main contributors of cancer-related death worldwide mainly due to the impact of chronic hepatitis B and C infections. Three mechanisms have been proposed to explain the oncogenic properties of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection: induction of chronic inflammation and cirrhosis, expression of HBV oncogenic proteins, and insertional mutagenesis into the genome of infected hepatocytes. Hepatitis B insertional mutagenesis modifies the function of cancer driver genes and could promote chromosomal instability. In contrast, hepatitis C virus promotes hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) occurrence mainly through cirrhosis development whereas the direct oncogenic role of the virus in human remains debated. Finally, adeno associated virus type 2 (AAV2), a defective DNA virus, has been associated with occurrence of HCC harboring insertional mutagenesis of the virus. Since these tumors developed in a non-cirrhotic context and in the absence of a known etiological factor, AAV2 appears to be the direct cause of tumor development in these patients via a mechanism of insertional mutagenesis altering similar oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes targeted by HBV. A better understanding of virus-related oncogenesis will be helpful to develop new preventive strategies and therapies directed against specific alterations observed in virus-related HCC.

Analysis of Clinical Characteristics of Hepatitis B and Alcohol-Related Liver Cancer

In order to analyze the clinical characteristics of hepatitis B and alcohol-related liver cancer, this paper combines the investigation and analysis methods to analyze the clinical characteristics of hepatitis B and alcohol-related liver cancer, studies them in combination with the actual situation, and studies multiple parameters with statistical methods. Different causes of liver cancer have different pathogenic mechanisms, which may make the clinical characteristics of liver cancer different. This study mainly explores the difference in clinical characteristics between hepatitis B-related hepatocellular carcinoma and alcohol-related hepatocellular carcinoma. Through comparative analysis and analysis of the clinical characteristics of hepatitis B and alcohol-related liver cancer, the study found that hepatitis B and alcohol-related liver cancer have obvious differences in their impact mechanisms. Therefore, targeted prevention and diagnosis and treatment measures can be put forward on this basis to provide a theoretical reference for subsequent clinical treatment analysis of liver cancer.

Integration of medicinal plants into the traditional system of medicine for the treatment of cancer in Sokoto State, Nigeria

This study was designed to explore and record various medicinal plants integrated into the traditional system of medicine for the treatment of cancer. The traditional system of medicine is a routine practiced among the indigenous ethnic groups of Sokoto state. A semi-structured questionnaire was designed and used for data collection around the selected Local Government Areas. A substantial number of plant species were identified, recorded, and collected for preservation. Data collected for each specie was analysed to assess its frequent use among the medicinal plants. A total of 67 species belonging to 31 families have been identified and recorded. Out of the 473 frequency of citation (FC), Acacia nilotica was the most frequently cited specie (32 FC, 64% FC, 0.6 RFC), followed by Guiera senegalensis (27 FC, 54% FC, 0.5 RFC), Erythrina sigmoidea (17 FC, 34% FC, 0.3 RFC), and subsequently Combretum camporum (15 FC, 30% FC, 0.3 RFC). The most common parts of the plants used include the barks (55.2%), the roots (53.2%), and the leaves (41.8%). Additionally, decoction (74.6%), powdered form (49.3%), and maceration (46.3%) are the most frequently used mode of preparation. The historical knowledge of a traditional system of medicine practiced by the native traditional healers of Sokoto for the treatment of cancer has been documented. The present study further provides a baseline for future pharmacological investigations into the beneficial effects of such medicinal plants for the treatment of cancer.

The Loss of Masculine With Declined Serum DHT Is Associated With High Risk of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Chinese Men

Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a male-predominant cancer. However, the relationship between 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), the active form of testosterone, and HCC risk has not been established yet. Methods: We performed a serum epidemiological study in the Chinese population. From 2010 to 2012, 106 male HCC patients and 318 age-matched controls were detected for their serum DHT and estradiol (E2). The odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated by logistic regression analysis with adjustment for potential risk factors. Bivariate Pearson correlations between hormone concentrations and liver function index were investigated. Results: Serum DHT levels were lower (to 1/3 of control), and E2 levels were higher (to 1.5-fold of control) in HCC patients. Compared with the low DHT level, men with a medium level had an adjusted multiple OR of 0.15 (95% CI 0.05-0.43, p trend < 0.01), and men with a high level had an OR of 0.05 (95% CI 0.01-0.21, p trend < 0.01). Notably, DHT concentration, but not E2, is correlated with liver injury. Conclusion: The data suggest that serum DHT is closely associated with HCC risk, providing a reference in order to accurately predict liver cancer and study the pathogenesis of this disease.

Biotransformation and Toxicities of Aristolochic Acids

Environmental and iatrogenic exposures contribute significantly to human diseases, including cancer. The list of known human carcinogens has recently been extended by the addition of aristolochic acids (AAs). AAs occur primarily in Aristolochia herbs, which are used extensively in folk medicines, including Traditional Chinese Medicine. Ingestion of AAs results in chronic renal disease and cancer. Despite importation bans imposed by certain countries, herbal remedies containing AAs are readily available for purchase through the internet. With recent advancements in mass spectrometry, next generation sequencing, and the development of integrated organs-on-chips, our knowledge of cancers associated with AA exposure, and of the mechanisms involved in AA toxicities, has significantly improved. DNA adduction plays a central role in AA-induced cancers; however, significant gaps remain in our knowledge as to how cellular enzymes promote activation of AAs and how the reactive species selectively bind to DNA and kidney proteins. In this review, I describe pathways for AAs biotransformation, adduction, and mutagenesis, emphasizing novel methods and ideas contributing to our present understanding of AA toxicities in humans.

New Users of Herbal Medicine Containing Aristolochic Acids and the Risk of Dementia in the Elderly: A Nationwide, Population-Based Study in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

Herbal medicine containing aristolochic acids (HMCAA) was used for inflammatory and infectious diseases. This study aimed to investigate the association between the usage of HMCAA and the risk of dementia.

METHODS

A total of 199 new users of HMCAA were enrolled, along with 597 controls without the usage of HMCAA, at a ratio of 1:3 - matched by age, sex, and comorbidity, between 2000 and 2003 - from the National Health Research Institutes Database (NHRID) of Taiwan, which contains two million randomly sampled subjects, in this cohort study. We used Fine and Gray's survival analysis (competing with mortality) to compare the risk of developing dementia during a 15-year follow-up period (2000-2015).

RESULTS

In general, HMCAA was not significantly associated with dementia (adjusted subdistribution hazard ratio [SHR] = 0.861, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.484-1.532, p = 0.611) for the HMCAA-cohort, although differential risk was observed among the groups at risk. The patients with usage of HMCAA aged ≧ 85 years were associated with a higher risk in dementia (adjusted SHR: 6.243, 95% CI=1.258-21.084, p = 0.001), in comparison to those aged 50-54 years. Furthermore, the patients with usage of HMCAA that had cerebrovascular accidents were associated with an increased risk of dementia.

CONCLUSION

The usage of HMCAA was associated with the risk of developing dementia in the patients aged ≧ 85 years.

Bioactivation mechanisms of N-hydroxyaristolactams: Nitroreduction metabolites of aristolochic acids

Aristolochic acids (AAs) are human nephrotoxins and carcinogens found in concoctions of Aristolochia plants used in traditional medicinal practices worldwide. Genotoxicity of AAs is associated with the formation of active species catalyzed by metabolic enzymes, the full repertoire of which is unknown. Recently, we provided evidence that sulfonation is important for bioactivation of AAs. Here, we employ Salmonella typhimurium umu tester strains expressing human N-acetyltransferases (NATs) and sulfotransferases (SULTs), to study the role of conjugation reactions in the genotoxicities of N-hydroxyaristolactams (AL-I-NOH and AL-II-NOH), metabolites of AA-I and AA-II. Both N-hydroxyaristolactams show stronger genotoxic effects in umu strains expressing human NAT1 and NAT2, than in the parent strain. Additionally, AL-I-NOH displays increased genotoxicity in strains expressing human SULT1A1 and SULT1A2, whereas AL-II-NOH shows enhanced genotoxicity in SULT1A1/2 and SULT1A3 strains. 2,6-Dichloro-4-nitrophenol, SULTs inhibitor, reduced umuC gene expression induced by N-hydroxyaristolactams in SULT1A2 strain. N-hydroxyaristolactams are also mutagenic in parent strains, suggesting that an additional mechanism(s) may contribute to their genotoxicities. Accordingly, using putative SULT substrates and inhibitors, we found that cytosols obtained from human kidney HK-2 cells activate N-hydroxyaristolactams in aristolactam-DNA adducts with the limited involvement of SULTs. Removal of low-molecular-weight reactants in the 3.5-10 kDa range inhibits the formation of aristolactam-DNA by 500-fold, which could not be prevented by the addition of cofactors for SULTs and NATs. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the genotoxicities of N-hydroxyaristolactams depend on the cell type and involve not only sulfonation but also N,O-acetyltransfer and an additional yet unknown mechanism(s). Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Health risk associated with the oral consumption of "Chiniy-tref", a traditional medicinal preparation used in Martinique (French West Indies): Qualitative and quantitative analyses of aristolochic acids contained therein

"Chiniy-tref" (CT) is a traditional preparation used in folk medicine in Martinique Island (French West Indies) that is nowadays mainly taken orally to prevent or act against any "manifestation of evil". CT is easily prepared at home by macerating larvae of the endemic swallowtail Battus polydamas (ssp.) cebriones (Dalman, 1823), sometimes accompanied by a leaf of its host-plant Aristolochia trilobata L., in commercial rum. We have previously reported the detection of nephrotoxic and carcinogenic aristolochic acids (AAs) I and II in CT, leading the Regional Health Agency (ARS) of Martinique to issue an alert regarding the potential risks associated with its consumption in 2015. In order to complete the toxicity risk assessment for oral consumption of CT, a full qualitative analysis of AAs and their analogues (AAAs) was performed, as well as a quantitative determination of the major AAs, namely AAs I and II. The phytochemical profiling of AAAs present in CT, that also corresponds to that of B. polydamas cebriones larvae feeding on A. trilobata, has been established for the first time by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. AAs I and II were quantified in a small panel of tinctures by using a validated UHPLC/UV method, allowing us to estimate the probable daily intakes of these toxins by CT consumers. The results proved the existence of a real risk of renal toxicity and carcinogenicity associated with the chronic oral consumption of CT in Martinique, and more generally of similar "snake bottles" throughout the Caribbean.

8 years post-marketing surveillance between Asari Radix and hepatocellular carcinoma: Nationwide population-based evidence against an association

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Asari Radix (Xixin, Asarum heterotropoides Fr. Schmidt var. mandshuricum Kitag., Asarum sieboldii Miq., or Asarum sieboldii Miq. var. seoulense Nakai, Asarum spp.) is the only herbal medicine containing aristolochic acid that can be used in medical practice. However, scientific evidence regarding its safe use in relation to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is lacking.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to use post-marketing surveillance to provide a scientific understanding of the relationship between Asari Radix and the development of HCC and suggest the maximum allowable amount of Asari Radix.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective, population-based cohort study was conducted, with patients randomly selected and divided into three cohorts: a non-hepatitis B virus (HBV)/hepatitis C virus (HCV) cohort, a HBV cohort, and a HCV cohort. Data were retrieved from the National Health Insurance Research Database of Taiwan from January 1, 1997 to December 31, 2013. The study period covered the initial 10 years of exposure to persistent HBV or HCV, followed by exposure to Asari Radix for an additional 8 years.

RESULTS

After propensity score matching, 106,942, 3818, and 928 patients were included in the non-HBV/HCV, HBV, and HCV cohorts, respectively. These cohorts included 75, 50, and 42 HCCs and 1,564,943, 30,956, and 6938 person-years, respectively. All hazard ratios of exposure to 1-30 g, 31-60 g, 61-100 g, and 101-200 g of Asari Radix in these three cohorts showed negative associations between Asari Radix exposure and HCC development. Furthermore, the three cohorts demonstrated that exposure to under 200 g of Asari Radix was safe.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-marketing surveillance showed that Asari Radix has no relationship with HCC development at an intake of under 200 g. The study is persuasive in furthering our knowledge of the maximum allowable amount of Asari Radix.

A global view of hepatocellular carcinoma: trends, risk, prevention and management

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fourth most common cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Risk factors for HCC include chronic hepatitis B and hepatitis C, alcohol addiction, metabolic liver disease (particularly nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) and exposure to dietary toxins such as aflatoxins and aristolochic acid. All these risk factors are potentially preventable, highlighting the considerable potential of risk prevention for decreasing the global burden of HCC. HCC surveillance and early detection increase the chance of potentially curative treatment; however, HCC surveillance is substantially underutilized, even in countries with sufficient medical resources. Early-stage HCC can be treated curatively by local ablation, surgical resection or liver transplantation. Treatment selection depends on tumour characteristics, the severity of underlying liver dysfunction, age, other medical comorbidities, and available medical resources and local expertise. Catheter-based locoregional treatment is used in patients with intermediate-stage cancer. Kinase and immune checkpoint inhibitors have been shown to be effective treatment options in patients with advanced-stage HCC. Together, rational deployment of prevention, attainment of global goals for viral hepatitis eradication, and improvements in HCC surveillance and therapy hold promise for achieving a substantial reduction in the worldwide HCC burden within the next few decades.

Chinese nonmedicinal herbal diet and risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A population-based case-control study

BACKGROUND

An association between a nonmedicinal herbal diet and nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) has often been hypothesized but never thoroughly investigated.

METHODS

This study enrolled a total of 2469 patients with incident NPC and 2559 population controls from parts of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces in southern China between 2010 and 2014. Questionnaire information was collected on the intake of traditional herbal tea and herbal soup as well as the specific herbal plants used in soups and other potentially confounding lifestyle factors. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the NPC risk in association with herbal tea and soup intake.

RESULTS

Ever consumption of herbal tea was not associated with NPC risk (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 0.91-1.17). An inverse association was observed for NPC among ever drinkers of herbal soup (OR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.67-0.90) but without any monotonic trend with an increasing frequency or duration of herbal soup consumption. Inverse associations with NPC risk were detected with 9 herbal plants used in herbal soup, including Ziziphus jujuba, Fructus lycii, Codonopsis pilosula, Astragalus membranaceus, Semen coicis, Smilax glabra, Phaseolus calcaratus, Morinda officinalis, and Atractylodes macrocephala (OR range, 0.31-0.79).

CONCLUSIONS

Consuming herbal soups including specific plants, but not herbal tea, was inversely associated with NPC. If replicated, these results might provide potential for NPC prevention in endemic areas.

Herbal Medicine Containing Aristolochic Acid and the Risk of Primary Liver Cancer in Patients with Hepatitis C Virus Infection

BACKGROUND

We investigated the association between taking herbal medicine (HM) containing aristolochic acid (AA) and the risk of primary liver cancer (PLC) among patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.

METHODS

This is a prospective study for the long-term follow-up of a nationwide population-based cohort of patients ages 18 years or older diagnosed with HCV infection during 1997 to 2010. A total of 223,467 HCV-infected patients were identified using the National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan. The use of HM containing AA was evaluated among patients who had visited traditional Chinese medicine clinics beginning from 1997 to 1 year prior to the diagnosis of PLC or dates censored (2003). We tracked each individual patient from 1997 to 2013 to identify incident cases of PLC since 1999.

RESULTS

During the follow-up period of 3,052,132 person-years, we identified 25,502 PLC cases; this corresponded to an overall incidence rate of 835.5 PLCs per 100,000 person-years. The adjusted HRs were 1.21 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.18-1.24], 1.48 (95% CI, 1.37-1.59), 1.50 (95% CI, 1.34-1.68), and 1.88 (95% CI, 1.61-2.19) for estimated AA usage groups: 1 to 250, 251 to 500, 501 to 1,000, and more than 1,000 mg, respectively, relative to no AA exposure (reference group).

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings suggest that among HCV-positive patients, increasing exposure to AA poses an increased risk of acquiring PLC.

IMPACT

AA may increase the risk of PLC in HCV-positive populations.

Systematic Overview of Aristolochic Acids: Nephrotoxicity, Carcinogenicity, and Underlying Mechanisms

Aristolochic acids (AAs) are a group of toxins commonly present in the plants of genus Aristolochia and Asarum, which are spread all over the world. Since the 1990s, AA-induced nephropathy (AAN) and upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC) have been reported in many countries. The underlying mechanisms of AAN and AA-induced UTUC have been extensively investigated. AA-derived DNA adducts are recognized as specific biomarkers of AA exposure, and a mutational signature predominantly characterized by A→T transversions has been detected in AA-induced UTUC tumor tissues. In addition, various enzymes and organic anion transporters are involved in AA-induced adverse reactions. The progressive lesions and mutational events initiated by AAs are irreversible, and no effective therapeutic regimen for AAN and AA-induced UTUC has been established until now. Because of several warnings on the toxic effects of AAs by the US Food and Drug Administration and the regulatory authorities of some other countries, the sale and use of AA-containing products have been banned or restricted in most countries. However, AA-related adverse events still occur, especially in the Asian and Balkan regions. Therefore, the use of AA-containing herbal remedies and the consumption of food contaminated by AAs still carry high risk. More strict precautions should be taken to protect the public from AA exposure.

Data resource profile: the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD)

Electronic health records (EHRs) can provide researchers with extraordinary opportunities for population-based research. The National Health Insurance system of Taiwan was established in 1995 and covers more than 99.6% of the Taiwanese population; this system's claims data are released as the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD). All data from primary outpatient departments and inpatient hospital care settings after 2000 are included in this database. After a change and update in 2016, the NHIRD is maintained and regulated by the Data Science Centre of the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Taiwan. Datasets for approved research are released in three forms: sampling datasets comprising 2 million subjects, disease-specific databases, and full population datasets. These datasets are de-identified and contain basic demographic information, disease diagnoses, prescriptions, operations, and investigations. Data can be linked to government surveys or other research datasets. While only a small number of validation studies with small sample sizes have been undertaken, they have generally reported positive predictive values of over 70% for various diagnoses. Currently, patients cannot opt out of inclusion in the database, although this requirement is under review. In conclusion, the NHIRD is a large, powerful data source for biomedical research.

Data resource profile: the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD)

Electronic health records (EHRs) can provide researchers with extraordinary opportunities for population-based research. The National Health Insurance system of Taiwan was established in 1995 and covers more than 99.6% of the Taiwanese population; this system’s claims data are released as the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD). All data from primary outpatient departments and inpatient hospital care settings after 2000 are included in this database. After a change and update in 2016, the NHIRD is maintained and regulated by the Data Science Centre of the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Taiwan. Datasets for approved research are released in three forms: sampling datasets comprising 2 million subjects, disease-specific databases, and full population datasets. These datasets are de-identified and contain basic demographic information, disease diagnoses, prescriptions, operations, and investigations. Data can be linked to government surveys or other research datasets. While only a small number of validation studies with small sample sizes have been undertaken, they have generally reported positive predictive values of over 70% for various diagnoses. Currently, patients cannot opt out of inclusion in the database, although this requirement is under review. In conclusion, the NHIRD is a large, powerful data source for biomedical research.

Chinese herbal medicine reduces acute hepatitis exacerbation in patients with hepatitis B virus infection: A case-control study in Taiwan

OBJECTIVES

Little information is available about the impact of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) treatment on acute exacerbation of hepatitis. This study aimed to assess the risk of acute exacerbation of hepatitis and subsequent cirrhosis and hepatoma in HBV patients with and without CHM use.

DESIGN AND SETTING

This population-based case-control study used data from the Taiwan Longitudinal Health Insurance Database from 2000 to 2013. Newly diagnosed HBV patients had acute exacerbation of hepatitis and subsequent cirrhosis and hepatoma as the case group, while another patients had no acute exacerbation of hepatitis and cirrhosis and hepatoma as the control group. To correct the differences in sociodemographic factors and Western medication use between the two groups, propensity score matching was used at a 1:1 ratio, and resulted in a comparison of 1306 and 805 patients per group, respectively.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Occurrence of acute exacerbation of hepatitis and subsequent cirrhosis and hepatoma.

RESULTS

Overall rate of acute exacerbation of hepatitis and subsequent cirrhosis and hepatoma was 7.9% and 4.8%, respectively. Patients receiving CHM had a significantly lower risk of acute exacerbation of hepatitis (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] =0.20, 95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 0.13-0.31) and subsequent cirrhosis and hepatoma (aOR = 0.29, 95%CI: 0.18-0.49) than those not receiving CHM after adjusting for relevant covariates. However, no dose-dependent relationship was exhibited for either incidence of acute exacerbation of hepatitis and cirrhosis and hepatoma.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight that the use of CHM was associated with a significantly reduced risk of acute exacerbation of hepatitis and subsequent cirrhosis and hepatoma in patients with HBV. Future research could further explore the benefit of CHM therapies for treatment of acute hepatitis exacerbation.