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Black D, Byrne D, Walke A, Liu S, Di Ieva A, Kaneko S, Stummer W, Salcudean T, Suero Molina E. Towards machine learning-based quantitative hyperspectral image guidance for brain tumor resection. COMMUNICATIONS MEDICINE 2024; 4:131. [PMID: 38965358 PMCID: PMC11224305 DOI: 10.1038/s43856-024-00562-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Complete resection of malignant gliomas is hampered by the difficulty in distinguishing tumor cells at the infiltration zone. Fluorescence guidance with 5-ALA assists in reaching this goal. Using hyperspectral imaging, previous work characterized five fluorophores' emission spectra in most human brain tumors. METHODS In this paper, the effectiveness of these five spectra was explored for different tumor and tissue classification tasks in 184 patients (891 hyperspectral measurements) harboring low- (n = 30) and high-grade gliomas (n = 115), non-glial primary brain tumors (n = 19), radiation necrosis (n = 2), miscellaneous (n = 10) and metastases (n = 8). Four machine-learning models were trained to classify tumor type, grade, glioma margins, and IDH mutation. RESULTS Using random forests and multilayer perceptrons, the classifiers achieve average test accuracies of 84-87%, 96.1%, 86%, and 91% respectively. All five fluorophore abundances vary between tumor margin types and tumor grades (p < 0.01). For tissue type, at least four of the five fluorophore abundances are significantly different (p < 0.01) between all classes. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate the fluorophores' differing abundances in different tissue classes and the value of the five fluorophores as potential optical biomarkers, opening new opportunities for intraoperative classification systems in fluorescence-guided neurosurgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Black
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Declan Byrne
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Anna Walke
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sidong Liu
- Computational NeuroSurgery (CNS) Lab, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Antonio Di Ieva
- Computational NeuroSurgery (CNS) Lab, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sadahiro Kaneko
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hokkaido Medical Center, National Hospital Organization, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Walter Stummer
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Tim Salcudean
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Eric Suero Molina
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany.
- Computational NeuroSurgery (CNS) Lab, Macquarie Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Fürtjes G, Reinecke D, von Spreckelsen N, Meißner AK, Rueß D, Timmer M, Freudiger C, Ion-Margineanu A, Khalid F, Watrinet K, Mawrin C, Chmyrov A, Goldbrunner R, Bruns O, Neuschmelting V. Intraoperative microscopic autofluorescence detection and characterization in brain tumors using stimulated Raman histology and two-photon fluorescence. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1146031. [PMID: 37234975 PMCID: PMC10207900 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1146031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The intrinsic autofluorescence of biological tissues interferes with the detection of fluorophores administered for fluorescence guidance, an emerging auxiliary technique in oncological surgery. Yet, autofluorescence of the human brain and its neoplasia is sparsely examined. This study aims to assess autofluorescence of the brain and its neoplasia on a microscopic level by stimulated Raman histology (SRH) combined with two-photon fluorescence. Methods With this experimentally established label-free microscopy technique unprocessed tissue can be imaged and analyzed within minutes and the process is easily incorporated in the surgical workflow. In a prospective observational study, we analyzed 397 SRH and corresponding autofluorescence images of 162 samples from 81 consecutive patients that underwent brain tumor surgery. Small tissue samples were squashed on a slide for imaging. SRH and fluorescence images were acquired with a dual wavelength laser (790 nm and 1020 nm) for excitation. In these images tumor and non-tumor regions were identified by a convolutional neural network that reliably differentiates between tumor, healthy brain tissue and low quality SRH images. The identified areas were used to define regions.of- interests (ROIs) and the mean fluorescence intensity was measured. Results In healthy brain tissue, we found an increased mean autofluorescence signal in the gray (11.86, SD 2.61, n=29) compared to the white matter (5.99, SD 5.14, n=11, p<0.01) and in the cerebrum (11.83, SD 3.29, n=33) versus the cerebellum (2.82, SD 0.93, n=7, p<0.001), respectively. The signal of carcinoma metastases, meningiomas, gliomas and pituitary adenomas was significantly lower (each p<0.05) compared to the autofluorescence in the cerebrum and dura, and significantly higher (each p<0.05) compared to the cerebellum. Melanoma metastases were found to have a higher fluorescent signal (p<0.01) compared to cerebrum and cerebellum. Discussion In conclusion we found that autofluorescence in the brain varies depending on the tissue type and localization and differs significantly among various brain tumors. This needs to be considered for interpreting photon signal during fluorescence-guided brain tumor surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Fürtjes
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT/UCC), Dresden, Germany: German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Medizinische Fakultät and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), Dresden, Germany
| | - David Reinecke
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Niklas von Spreckelsen
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Anna-Katharina Meißner
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Daniel Rueß
- Department of Stereotaxy and Functional Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Marco Timmer
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | - Christian Mawrin
- University Hospital Magdeburg, Institute of Neuropathology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Andriy Chmyrov
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT/UCC), Dresden, Germany: German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Medizinische Fakultät and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), Dresden, Germany
| | - Roland Goldbrunner
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Oliver Bruns
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT/UCC), Dresden, Germany: German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany; Medizinische Fakultät and University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR), Dresden, Germany
| | - Volker Neuschmelting
- Department of General Neurosurgery, Center of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Campbell JM, Mahbub SB, Habibalahi A, Agha A, Handley S, Anwer AG, Goldys EM. Clinical applications of non-invasive multi and hyperspectral imaging of cell and tissue autofluorescence beyond oncology. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2023; 16:e202200264. [PMID: 36602432 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202200264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Hyperspectral and multispectral imaging of cell and tissue autofluorescence employs fluorescence imaging, without exogenous fluorophores, across multiple excitation/emission combinations (spectral channels). This produces an image stack where each pixel (matched by location) contains unique information about the sample's spectral properties. Analysis of this data enables access to a rich, molecularly specific data set from a broad range of cell-native fluorophores (autofluorophores) directly reflective of biochemical status, without use of fixation or stains. This non-invasive, non-destructive technology has great potential to spare the collection of biopsies from sensitive regions. As both staining and biopsy may be impossible, or undesirable, depending on the context, this technology great diagnostic potential for clinical decision making. The main research focus has been on the identification of neoplastic tissues. However, advances have been made in diverse applications-including ophthalmology, cardiovascular health, neurology, infection, assisted reproduction technology and organ transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared M Campbell
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Saabah B Mahbub
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Abbas Habibalahi
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Adnan Agha
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Shannon Handley
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ayad G Anwer
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ewa M Goldys
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, Sydney, Australia
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Lifante J, de la Fuente-Fernández M, Román-Carmena M, Fernandez N, Jaque García D, Granado M, Ximendes E. In vivo grading of lipids in fatty liver by near-infrared autofluorescence and reflectance. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2023; 16:e202200208. [PMID: 36377726 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202200208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD) is rapidly increasing worldwide. When untreated, it may lead to complications such as liver cirrhosis or hepatocarcinoma. The diagnosis of NAFLD is usually obtained by ultrasonography, a technique that can underestimate its prevalence. For this reason, physicians aspire for an accurate, cost-effective, and noninvasive method to determine both the presence and the specific stage of the NAFLD. In this paper, we report an integrated approach for the quantitative estimation of the density of triglycerides in the liver based on the use of autofluorescence and reflectance signals generated by the abdomen of obese C57BL6/J mice. Singular value decomposition is applied to the generated spectra and its corresponding regression model provided a determination coefficient of 0.99 and a root mean square error of 240 mg/dl. This, in turn, enabled the quantitative imaging of triglycerides density in the livers of mice under in vivo conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Lifante
- Nanomaterials for Bioimaging Group (nanoBIG), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Nuria Fernandez
- Nanomaterials for Bioimaging Group (nanoBIG), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Jaque García
- Nanomaterials for Bioimaging Group (nanoBIG), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain
| | - Miriam Granado
- Nanomaterials for Bioimaging Group (nanoBIG), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Erving Ximendes
- Nanomaterials for Bioimaging Group (nanoBIG), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain
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5
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Xie N, Hou Y, Wang S, Ai X, Bai J, Lai X, Zhang Y, Meng X, Wang X. Second near-infrared (NIR-II) imaging: a novel diagnostic technique for brain diseases. Rev Neurosci 2021; 33:467-490. [PMID: 34551223 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2021-0088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Imaging in the second near-infrared II (NIR-II) window, a kind of biomedical imaging technology with characteristics of high sensitivity, high resolution, and real-time imaging, is commonly used in the diagnosis of brain diseases. Compared with the conventional visible light (400-750 nm) and NIR-I (750-900 nm) imaging, the NIR-II has a longer wavelength of 1000-1700 nm. Notably, the superiorities of NIR-II can minimize the light scattering and autofluorescence of biological tissue with the depth of brain tissue penetration up to 7.4 mm. Herein, we summarized the main principles of NIR-II in animal models of traumatic brain injury, cerebrovascular visualization, brain tumor, inflammation, and stroke. Simultaneously, we encapsulated the in vivo process of NIR-II probes and their in vivo and in vitro toxic effects. We further dissected its limitations and following optimization measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Xie
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Ya Hou
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Shaohui Wang
- Ethnic Medicine Academic Heritage Innovation Research Center, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Xiaopeng Ai
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Jinrong Bai
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Xianrong Lai
- Ethnic Medicine Academic Heritage Innovation Research Center, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Ethnic Medicine Academic Heritage Innovation Research Center, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Xianli Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
| | - Xiaobo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu611137, China
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Fan X, Li Y, Feng Z, Chen G, Zhou J, He M, Wu L, Li S, Qian J, Lin H. Nanoprobes-Assisted Multichannel NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging-Guided Resection and Photothermal Ablation of Lymph Nodes. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:2003972. [PMID: 33977058 PMCID: PMC8097375 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202003972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Lymph node metastasis is a major metastatic route of cancer and significantly influences the prognosis of cancer patients. Radical lymphadenectomy is crucial for a successful surgery. However, iatrogenic normal organ injury during lymphadenectomy is a troublesome complication. Here, this paper reports a kind of organic nanoprobes (IDSe-IC2F nanoparticles (NPs)) with excellent second near-infrared (NIR-II) fluorescence and photothermal properties. IDSe-IC2F NPs can effectively label lymph nodes and helped achieve high-contrast lymphatic imaging. More importantly, by jointly using IDSe-IC2F nanoparticles and other kinds of nanoparticles with different excitation/emission properties, a multichannel NIR-II fluorescence imaging modality and imaging-guided lymphadenectomy is proposed. With the help of this navigation system, the iatrogenic injury can be largely avoided. In addition, NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided photothermal treatment ("hot" strategy) can ablate those metastatic lymph nodes which are difficult to deal with during resection ("cold" strategy). Nanoprobes-assisted and multichannel NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided "cold" and "hot" treatment strategy provides a general new basis for the future precision surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Fan
- Department of General SurgerySir Run Run Shaw HospitalSchool of MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310000P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical InstrumentationsCentre for Optical and Electromagnetic ResearchCollege of Optical Science and EngineeringInternational Research Center for Advanced PhotonicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Yirun Li
- Department of General SurgerySir Run Run Shaw HospitalSchool of MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310000P. R. China
| | - Zhe Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical InstrumentationsCentre for Optical and Electromagnetic ResearchCollege of Optical Science and EngineeringInternational Research Center for Advanced PhotonicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Guoqiao Chen
- Department of General SurgerySir Run Run Shaw HospitalSchool of MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310000P. R. China
| | - Jing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical InstrumentationsCentre for Optical and Electromagnetic ResearchCollege of Optical Science and EngineeringInternational Research Center for Advanced PhotonicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Mubin He
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical InstrumentationsCentre for Optical and Electromagnetic ResearchCollege of Optical Science and EngineeringInternational Research Center for Advanced PhotonicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Lan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical InstrumentationsCentre for Optical and Electromagnetic ResearchCollege of Optical Science and EngineeringInternational Research Center for Advanced PhotonicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Shengliang Li
- College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhou215123P. R. China
- Center of Super‐Diamond and Advanced Films (COSDAF)Department of ChemistryCity University of Hong Kong83 Tat Chee AvenueKowloonHong Kong999077P. R. China
| | - Jun Qian
- Department of General SurgerySir Run Run Shaw HospitalSchool of MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310000P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical InstrumentationsCentre for Optical and Electromagnetic ResearchCollege of Optical Science and EngineeringInternational Research Center for Advanced PhotonicsZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310058P. R. China
| | - Hui Lin
- Department of General SurgerySir Run Run Shaw HospitalSchool of MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310000P. R. China
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7
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Cantarano A, Yao J, Matulionyte M, Lifante J, Benayas A, Ortgies DH, Vetrone F, Ibanez A, Gérardin C, Jaque D, Dantelle G. Autofluorescence-Free In Vivo Imaging Using Polymer-Stabilized Nd 3+-Doped YAG Nanocrystals. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:51273-51284. [PMID: 33156603 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c15514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG:Nd3+) has been widely developed during roughly the past 60 years and has been an outstanding fluorescent material. It has been considered as the gold standard among multipurpose solid-state lasers. Yet, the successful downsizing of this system into the nanoregimen has been elusive, so far. Indeed, the synthesis of a garnet structure at the nanoscale, with enough crystalline quality for optical applications, was found to be quite challenging. Here, we present an improved solvothermal synthesis method producing YAG:Nd3+ nanocrystals of remarkably good structural quality. Adequate surface functionalization using asymmetric double-hydrophilic block copolymers, constituted of a metal-binding block and a neutral water-soluble block, provides stabilized YAG:Nd3+ nanocrystals with long-term colloidal stability in aqueous suspensions. These newly stabilized nanoprobes offer spectroscopic quality (long lifetimes, narrow emission lines, and large Stokes shifts) close to that of bulk YAG:Nd3+. The narrow emission lines of YAG:Nd3+ nanocrystals are exploited by differential infrared fluorescence imaging, thus achieving an autofluorescence-free in vivo readout. In addition, nanothermometry measurements, based on the ratiometric fluorescence of the stabilized YAG:Nd3+ nanocrystals, are demonstrated. The progress here reported paves the way for the implementation of this new stabilized YAG:Nd3+ system in the preclinical arena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Cantarano
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Jingke Yao
- Fluorescence Imaging Group, Departamento de Física de Materiales, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Francisco Tomás y Valiente 7, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marija Matulionyte
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Énergie, Matériaux et Télécommunications, Université du Québec, 1650 Boul. Lionel-Boulet, Varennes (Québec) J3X 1S2, Canada
| | - José Lifante
- Fluorescence Imaging Group, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Avda. Arzobispo Morcillo, 2, Madrid 28029, Spain
- Nanobiology Group, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria IRYCIS, Ctra. Colmenar km 9.100, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Antonio Benayas
- Fluorescence Imaging Group, Departamento de Física de Materiales, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Francisco Tomás y Valiente 7, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Nanobiology Group, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria IRYCIS, Ctra. Colmenar km 9.100, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Dirk H Ortgies
- Fluorescence Imaging Group, Departamento de Física de Materiales, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Francisco Tomás y Valiente 7, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Nanobiology Group, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria IRYCIS, Ctra. Colmenar km 9.100, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Fiorenzo Vetrone
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Énergie, Matériaux et Télécommunications, Université du Québec, 1650 Boul. Lionel-Boulet, Varennes (Québec) J3X 1S2, Canada
| | - Alain Ibanez
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Corine Gérardin
- ICGM, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS UMR 5253, ENSCM, 240 Avenue E. Jeanbrau, 34296 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Daniel Jaque
- Fluorescence Imaging Group, Departamento de Física de Materiales, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C/Francisco Tomás y Valiente 7, 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Nanobiology Group, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria IRYCIS, Ctra. Colmenar km 9.100, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Géraldine Dantelle
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Institut Néel, 38000 Grenoble, France
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