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Dorozhkin SV. There Are over 60 Ways to Produce Biocompatible Calcium Orthophosphate (CaPO4) Deposits on Various Substrates. JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES SCIENCE 2023; 7:273. [DOI: 10.3390/jcs7070273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
A The present overview describes various production techniques for biocompatible calcium orthophosphate (abbreviated as CaPO4) deposits (coatings, films and layers) on the surfaces of various types of substrates to impart the biocompatible properties for artificial bone grafts. Since, after being implanted, the grafts always interact with the surrounding biological tissues at the interfaces, their surface properties are considered critical to clinical success. Due to the limited number of materials that can be tolerated in vivo, a new specialty of surface engineering has been developed to desirably modify any unacceptable material surface characteristics while maintaining the useful bulk performance. In 1975, the development of this approach led to the emergence of a special class of artificial bone grafts, in which various mechanically stable (and thus suitable for load-bearing applications) implantable biomaterials and artificial devices were coated with CaPO4. Since then, more than 7500 papers have been published on this subject and more than 500 new publications are added annually. In this review, a comprehensive analysis of the available literature has been performed with the main goal of finding as many deposition techniques as possible and more than 60 methods (double that if all known modifications are counted) for producing CaPO4 deposits on various substrates have been systematically described. Thus, besides the introduction, general knowledge and terminology, this review consists of two unequal parts. The first (bigger) part is a comprehensive summary of the known CaPO4 deposition techniques both currently used and discontinued/underdeveloped ones with brief descriptions of their major physical and chemical principles coupled with the key process parameters (when possible) to inform readers of their existence and remind them of the unused ones. The second (smaller) part includes fleeting essays on the most important properties and current biomedical applications of the CaPO4 deposits with an indication of possible future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey V. Dorozhkin
- Faculty of Physics, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1-2, Moscow 119991, Russia
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Damerau JM, Bierbaum S, Wiedemeier D, Korn P, Smeets R, Jenny G, Nadalini J, Stadlinger B. A systematic review on the effect of inorganic surface coatings in large animal models and meta-analysis on tricalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite on periimplant bone formation. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2021; 110:157-175. [PMID: 34272804 PMCID: PMC9292919 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present systematic review was to analyse studies using inorganic implant coatings and, in a meta‐analysis, the effect of specifically tricalcium phosphate (TCP) and hydroxyapatite (HA) implant surface coatings on bone formation according to the PRISMA criteria. Inclusion criteria were the comparison to rough surfaced titanium implants in large animal studies at different time points of healing. Forty studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review. Fifteen of these analyzed the bone‐to‐implant contact (BIC) around the most investigated inorganic titanium implant coatings, namely TCP and HA, and were included in the meta‐analysis. The results of the TCP group show after 14 days a BIC being 3.48% points lower compared with the reference surface. This difference in BIC decreases to 0.85% points after 21–28 days. After 42–84 days, the difference in BIC of 13.79% points is in favor of the TCP‐coatings. However, the results are not statistically significant, in part due to the fact that the variability between the studies increased over time. The results of the HA group show a significant difference in mean BIC of 6.94% points after 14 days in favor of the reference surface. After 21–28 days and 42–84 days the difference in BIC is slightly in favor of the test group with 1.53% points and 1.57% points, respectively, lacking significance. In large animals, there does not seem to be much effect of TCP‐coated or HA‐coated implants over uncoated rough titanium implants in the short term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne-Marie Damerau
- Clinic of Cranio-Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, Center of Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Bierbaum
- Max Bergmann Center of Biomaterials, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,International Medical College, Münster, Germany
| | - Daniel Wiedemeier
- Statistical Services, Center for Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paula Korn
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ralf Smeets
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gregor Jenny
- Clinic of Cranio-Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, Center of Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johanna Nadalini
- Clinic of Cranio-Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, Center of Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bernd Stadlinger
- Clinic of Cranio-Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, Center of Dental Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Chen L, Komasa S, Hashimoto Y, Hontsu S, Okazaki J. In Vitro and In Vivo Osteogenic Activity of Titanium Implants Coated by Pulsed Laser Deposition with a Thin Film of Fluoridated Hydroxyapatite. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19041127. [PMID: 29642566 PMCID: PMC5979563 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19041127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
To enhance biocompatibility, osteogenesis, and osseointegration, we coated titanium implants, by krypton fluoride (KrF) pulsed laser deposition, with a thin film of fluoridated hydroxyapatite (FHA). Coating was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and scanning probe microscopy (SPM), while physicochemical properties were evaluated by attenuated reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). Calcium deposition, osteocalcin production, and expression of osteoblast genes were significantly higher in rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells seeded on FHA-coated titanium than in cells seeded on uncoated titanium. Implantation into rat femurs also showed that the FHA-coated material had superior osteoinductive and osseointegration activity in comparison with that of traditional implants, as assessed by microcomputed tomography and histology. Thus, titanium coated with FHA holds promise as a dental implant material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyuan Chen
- Department of Removable Prosthodontics and Occlusion, Osaka Dental University, 8-1 Kuzuhahanazono-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-1121, Japan.
| | - Satoshi Komasa
- Department of Removable Prosthodontics and Occlusion, Osaka Dental University, 8-1 Kuzuhahanazono-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-1121, Japan.
| | - Yoshiya Hashimoto
- Department of Biomaterials, Osaka Dental University, 8-1 Kuzuhahanazono-cho, Hirakata-shi, Osaka 573-1121, Japan.
| | - Shigeki Hontsu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Biology-Oriented Science and Technology, Kindai University, 930 Nishimitani, Kinokawa, Wakayama 649-6493, Japan.
| | - Joji Okazaki
- Department of Removable Prosthodontics and Occlusion, Osaka Dental University, 8-1 Kuzuhahanazono-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-1121, Japan.
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Ito T, Ohtsu N, Tomozawa M, Hirano M, Takita H, Iizuka T, Yokoyama A. Promotion of bone regeneration on titanium implants through a chemical treatment process using calcium phosphate slurry: Microscopic analysis, cellular response, and animal experiment. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2018; 106:2716-2724. [PMID: 29451708 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The present study provides scientific evidence that a new chemical treatment process using calcium phosphate slurry promotes bone regeneration on titanium (Ti) implants. The material's surface modified by the treatment was analyzed using microscopic observation and the bone regeneration efficacy was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. Formation of a thin hydroxyapatite layer with a thickness of about 50 nm and an increase of surface roughness were confirmed by microscopic observations. Histological evaluation of rat femora implanted with the specimens showed that the areas of the specimens directly attached to bone tissue were significantly more extensive than those implanted with control Ti at 2 and 8 weeks. Likewise, on the treated Ti, ALP activity, osteopontin, osteocalcin, and calcium contents of rat bone marrow stromal cells were significantly higher than on the control Ti. Furthermore, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction showed greater expression of messenger ribonucleic acid encoding Cbfa1 and collagen type1 on the treated Ti at 2 weeks. Based on these results, we concluded that the new process was effective to enhance the osteoconductivity of Ti. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 106B: 2716-2724, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuro Ito
- Department of Oral Functional Prosthodontics, Division of Oral Functional Science, Graduate School of Dental Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Naofumi Ohtsu
- School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami, Japan
| | - Masanari Tomozawa
- Morphological Research Laboratory, Toray Research Center, Inc., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Hirano
- School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami, Japan
| | - Hiroko Takita
- Support Section for Education and Research, Graduate School of Dental Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tadashi Iizuka
- Support Section for Education and Research, Graduate School of Dental Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Atsuro Yokoyama
- Department of Oral Functional Prosthodontics, Division of Oral Functional Science, Graduate School of Dental Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Calcium orthophosphate deposits: Preparation, properties and biomedical applications. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2015; 55:272-326. [PMID: 26117762 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Since various interactions among cells, surrounding tissues and implanted biomaterials always occur at their interfaces, the surface properties of potential implants appear to be of paramount importance for the clinical success. In view of the fact that a limited amount of materials appear to be tolerated by living organisms, a special discipline called surface engineering was developed to initiate the desirable changes to the exterior properties of various materials but still maintaining their useful bulk performances. In 1975, this approach resulted in the introduction of a special class of artificial bone grafts, composed of various mechanically stable (consequently, suitable for load bearing applications) implantable biomaterials and/or bio-devices covered by calcium orthophosphates (CaPO4) to both improve biocompatibility and provide an adequate bonding to the adjacent bones. Over 5000 publications on this topic were published since then. Therefore, a thorough analysis of the available literature has been performed and about 50 (this number is doubled, if all possible modifications are counted) deposition techniques of CaPO4 have been revealed, systematized and described. These CaPO4 deposits (coatings, films and layers) used to improve the surface properties of various types of artificial implants are the topic of this review.
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Jiang T, Guo L, Ni S, Zhao Y. Upregulation of cell proliferation via Shc and ERK1/2 MAPK signaling in SaOS-2 osteoblasts grown on magnesium alloy surface coating with tricalcium phosphate. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2015; 26:158. [PMID: 25783501 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-015-5479-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Magnesium (Mg) alloys have been demonstrated to be viable orthopedic implants because of mechanical and biocompatible properties similar to natural bone. In order to improve its osteogenic properties, a porous β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) was coated on the Mg-3AI-1Zn alloy by alkali-heat treatment technique. The human bone-derived cells (SaOS-2) were cultured on (β-TCP)-Mg-3AI-1Zn in vitro, and the osteoblast response, the morphology and the elements on this alloy surface were investigated. Also, the regulation of key intracellular signalling proteins was investigated in the SaOS-2 cells cultured on alloy surface. The results from scanning electron microscope and immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that (β-TCP)-Mg-3AI-1Zn induced significant osteogenesis. SaOS-2 cell proliferation was improved by β-TCP coating. Moreover, the (β-TCP)-Mg-3AI-1Zn surface induced activation of key intracellular signalling proteins in SaOS-2 cells. We observed an enhanced activation of Src homology and collagen (Shc), a common point of integration between bone morphogenetic protein 2, and the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. ERK1/2 MAP kinase activation was also upregulated, suggesting a role in mediating osteoblastic cell interactions with biomaterials. The signalling pathway involving c-fos (member of the activated protein-1) was also shown to be upregulated in osteoblasts cultured on the (β-TCP)-Mg-3AI-1Zn. These results suggest that β-TCP coating may contribute to successful osteoblast function on Mg alloy surface. (β-TCP)-Mg-3AI-1Zn may upregulate cell proliferation via Shc and ERK1/2 MAPK signaling in SaOS-2 osteoblasts grown on Mg alloy surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianlong Jiang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
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Calderoni DR, Gilioli R, Munhoz ALJ, Maciel Filho R, Zavaglia CADC, Lambert CS, Lopes ÉSN, Toro IFC, Kharmandayan P. Paired evaluation of calvarial reconstruction with prototyped titanium implants with and without ceramic coating. Acta Cir Bras 2014; 29:579-87. [DOI: 10.1590/s0102-8650201400150005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Tredwin CJ, Young AM, Abou Neel EA, Georgiou G, Knowles JC. Hydroxyapatite, fluor-hydroxyapatite and fluorapatite produced via the sol-gel method: dissolution behaviour and biological properties after crystallisation. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2014; 25:47-53. [PMID: 24052344 PMCID: PMC3890558 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-013-5050-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/07/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite (HA), fluor-hydroxyapatite (FHA) with varying levels of fluoride ion substitution and fluorapatite (FA) were synthesised by the sol-gel method as possible implant coating or bone-grafting materials. Calcium nitrate and triethyl phosphite were used as precursors under an ethanol-water based solution. Different amounts of ammonium fluoride were incorporated for the preparation of the FHA and FA sol-gels. After heating and powdering the sol-gels, dissolution behaviour was assessed using ion chromatography to measure Ca(2+) and PO4 (3-) ion release. Biological behaviour was assessed using cellular proliferation with human osteosarcoma cells and alamarBlue™ assay. Statistical analysis was performed with a two way analysis of variance and post hoc testing with a Bonferroni correction. Increasing fluoride substitution into an apatite structure decreased the dissolution rate. Increasing the firing temperature of the HA, FHA and FA sol-gels up to 1,000 °C decreased the dissolution rate. There was significantly higher cellular proliferation on highly substituted FHA and FA than on HA or Titanium. The properties of an implant coating or bone grafting material can be tailored to meet specific requirements by altering the amount of fluoride that is incorporated into the original apatite structure. The dissolution behaviour can further be altered by the temperature at which the sol-gel is fired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Tredwin
- Plymouth University Peninsula Schools of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Plymouth, The John Bull Building, Tamar Science Park, Research Way, Plymouth, PL6 8BU UK
| | - Anne M. Young
- Division of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Grays Inn Road, London, WC1X 8LD UK
| | - Ensanya A. Abou Neel
- Division of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Grays Inn Road, London, WC1X 8LD UK
- Division of Biomaterials, Conservative Dental Sciences Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Biomaterials Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - George Georgiou
- Division of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Grays Inn Road, London, WC1X 8LD UK
| | - Jonathan C. Knowles
- Division of Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, UCL Eastman Dental Institute, 256 Grays Inn Road, London, WC1X 8LD UK
- WCU Research Centre of Nanobiomedical Science, Dankook University, San#29, Anseo-dong, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si, Chungnam 330-714 South Korea
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Dorozhkin SV. Calcium orthophosphate coatings, films and layers. Prog Biomater 2012; 1:1. [PMID: 29470670 PMCID: PMC5120666 DOI: 10.1186/2194-0517-1-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In surgical disciplines, where bones have to be repaired, augmented or improved, bone substitutes are essential. Therefore, an interest has dramatically increased in application of synthetic bone grafts. As various interactions among cells, surrounding tissues and implanted biomaterials always occur at the interfaces, the surface properties of the implants are of the paramount importance in determining both the biological response to implants and the material response to the physiological conditions. Hence, a surface engineering is aimed to modify both the biomaterials, themselves, and biological responses through introducing desirable changes to the surface properties of the implants but still maintaining their bulk mechanical properties. To fulfill these requirements, a special class of artificial bone grafts has been introduced in 1976. It is composed of various mechanically stable (therefore, suitable for load bearing applications) biomaterials and/or bio-devices with calcium orthophosphate coatings, films and layers on their surfaces to both improve interactions with the surrounding tissues and provide an adequate bonding to bones. Many production techniques of calcium orthophosphate coatings, films and layers have been already invented and new promising techniques are continuously investigated. These specialized coatings, films and layers used to improve the surface properties of various types of artificial implants are the topic of this review.
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Surface Engineering for Bone Implants: A Trend from Passive to Active Surfaces. COATINGS 2012. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings2030095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Yang SP, Yang CY, Lee TM, Lui TS. Effects of calcium-phosphate topography on osteoblast mechanobiology determined using a cytodetacher. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2011.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Lu Z, Roohani-Esfahani SI, Kwok PCL, Zreiqat H. Osteoblasts on rod shaped hydroxyapatite nanoparticles incorporated PCL film provide an optimal osteogenic niche for stem cell differentiation. Tissue Eng Part A 2011; 17:1651-61. [PMID: 21306280 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
After the clinical insertion of a bone biomaterial, the surrounding osteoblasts would migrate and attach to the implant surface and foster a microenvironment that largely determines the differentiation fate of the comigrated mesenchymal stem cells. Whether the fostered microenvironment is suitable for osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells is critical for the subsequent osseointegration. In this study, we determined (1) how the spherical or rod-shaped hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (nHA) incorporated poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) films (PCL-spherical nHA, PCL-rod nHA) interact with primary human osteoblasts (HOBs); (2) how the microenvironment rendered by their interaction affects osteogenic differentiation of adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ASCs). HOBs were seeded on PCL, PCL-spherical nHA, and PCL-rod nHA films, respectively. When cultured alone, the HOBs on PCL-rod nHA films showed most efficient osteoblastic differentiation compared with those on PCL or PCL-spherical nHA films. When cocultured with ASCs in an indirect coculture system, only the HOBs on PCL-rod nHA films up-regulated the gene expression of Runx2, bone sialoprotein, and osteocalcin of ASCs. Additionally, the HOBs on PCL-rod nHA films showed significant up-regulation of bone morphogenic protein 2 gene and protein expression and induced highest phosphorylated Smad1/5 protein level in ASCs. Treatment of the coculture medium with bone morphogenic protein 2 inhibitor (Noggin) largely abolished the osteogenic differentiation of the ASCs induced by the HOBs on PCL-rod nHA films. In conclusion, HOBs can not only best display their osteoblastic phenotype by culturing on PCL-rod nHA films but also render an optimal osteogenic niche for the differentiation of stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZuFu Lu
- Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering Research Unit, School of AMME, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Son KM, Park HC, Kim NR, Lee IS, Yang HC. Enhancement of the ALP activity of C3H10T1/2 cells by the combination of an oxysterol and apatite. Biomed Mater 2010; 5:044107. [DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/5/4/044107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Veith M, Aktas OC, Metzger W, Sossong D, Ullah Wazir H, Grobelsek I, Pütz N, Wennemuth G, Pohlemann T, Oberringer M. Adhesion of fibroblasts on micro- and nanostructured surfaces prepared by chemical vapor deposition and pulsed laser treatment. Biofabrication 2010; 2:035001. [DOI: 10.1088/1758-5082/2/3/035001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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