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Gerardi D, Bernardi S, Bruni A, Falisi G, Botticelli G. Characterization and morphological methods for oral biofilm visualization: where are we nowadays? AIMS Microbiol 2024; 10:391-414. [PMID: 38919718 PMCID: PMC11194622 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2024020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The oral microbiome represents an essential component of the oral ecosystem whose symbiotic relationship contributes to health maintenance. The biofilm represents a state of living of microorganisms surrounding themselves with a complex and tridimensional organized polymeric support and defense matrix. The substrates where the oral biofilm adhere can suffer from damages due to the microbial community metabolisms. Therefore, microbial biofilm represents the main etiological factor of the two pathologies of dental interest with the highest incidence, such as carious pathology and periodontal pathology. The study, analysis, and understanding of the characteristics of the biofilm, starting from the macroscopic structure up to the microscopic architecture, appear essential. This review examined the morphological methods used through the years to identify species, adhesion mechanisms that contribute to biofilm formation and stability, and how the action of microbicidal molecules is effective against pathological biofilm. Microscopy is the primary technique for the morphological characterization of biofilm. Light microscopy, which includes the stereomicroscope and confocal laser microscopy (CLSM), allows the visualization of microbial communities in their natural state, providing valuable information on the spatial arrangement of different microorganisms within the biofilm and revealing microbial diversity in the biofilm matrix. The stereomicroscope provides a three-dimensional view of the sample, allowing detailed observation of the structure, thickness, morphology, and distribution of the various species in the biofilm while CLSM provides information on its three-dimensional architecture, microbial composition, and dynamic development. Electron microscopy, scanning (SEM) or transmission (TEM), allows the high-resolution investigation of the architecture of the biofilm, analyzing the bacterial population, the extracellular polymeric matrix (EPS), and the mechanisms of the physical and chemical forces that contribute to the adhesion of the biofilm to the substrates, on a nanometric scale. More advanced microscopic methodologies, such as scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), and correlative microscopy, have enabled the evaluation of antibacterial treatments, due to the potential to reveal the efficacy of different molecules in breaking down the biofilm. In conclusion, evidence based on scientific literature shows that established microscopic methods represent the most common tools used to characterize biofilm and its morphology in oral microbiology. Further protocols and studies on the application of advanced microscopic techniques are needed to obtain precise details on the microbiological and pathological aspects of oral biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Gerardi
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Sara Bernardi
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Angelo Bruni
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Giovanni Falisi
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Gianluca Botticelli
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
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Achinas S, Yska SK, Charalampogiannis N, Krooneman J, Euverink GJW. A Technological Understanding of Biofilm Detection Techniques: A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 13:E3147. [PMID: 32679710 PMCID: PMC7412299 DOI: 10.3390/ma13143147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Biofouling is a persistent problem in almost any water-based application in several industries. To eradicate biofouling-related problems in bioreactors, the detection of biofilms is necessary. The current literature does not provide clear supportive information on selecting biofilm detection techniques that can be applied to detect biofouling within bioreactors. Therefore, this research aims to review all available biofilm detection techniques and analyze their characteristic properties to provide a comparative assessment that researchers can use to find a suitable biofilm detection technique to investigate their biofilms. In addition, it discusses the confluence of common bioreactor fabrication materials in biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridon Achinas
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands; (S.K.Y.); (J.K.); (G.J.W.E.)
| | - Stijn Keimpe Yska
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands; (S.K.Y.); (J.K.); (G.J.W.E.)
| | | | - Janneke Krooneman
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands; (S.K.Y.); (J.K.); (G.J.W.E.)
| | - Gerrit Jan Willem Euverink
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands; (S.K.Y.); (J.K.); (G.J.W.E.)
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Optimization of ionic liquid-incorporated PLGA nanoparticles for treatment of biofilm infections. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2018; 97:78-83. [PMID: 30678968 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2018.11.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) containing imidazolium cations have a number of useful properties, such as high permeability to cells, high antimicrobial activity, and good biocompatibility. With the aid of ILs, transdermal delivery, solubilization of poorly soluble drugs were developed and therapeutic effects were improved. In this work, 1‑butyl‑3‑methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate-incorporated, chitosan-modified, submicron-sized poly(dl‑lactide‑co‑glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared using the emulsion solvent diffusion method for the treatment of biofilm infections. Prepared IL-incorporated PLGA NPs using surfactants such as Tween-80 and poloxamer-188 showed a high antibacterial activity to the bacterial cells under the biofilm. Additionally, antibacterial mechanism of IL-incorporated PLGA NPs was revealed by annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy combined a simple sample pretreatment method. We established a drug delivery system using IL-incorporated PLGA NPs to enhance the potential of polymeric nanocarriers for treating biofilm infections.
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Takahashi C, Matsubara N, Akachi Y, Ogawa N, Kalita G, Asaka T, Tanemura M, Kawashima Y, Yamamoto H. Visualization of silver-decorated poly (DL-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles and their efficacy against Staphylococcus epidermidis. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2016; 72:143-149. [PMID: 28024570 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.11.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Revised: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Understanding of self-protection activity of the bacteria and interaction with drug substances has significant importance for designing of effective drug delivery system for treatment of biofilm infections. Recently silver nanoparticle has attracted attention as antibacterial substance for drug delivery system because of its high antibacterial activity. Here, efflux of silver nanoparticles obtained from within the prepared silver-decorated poly (DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (Ag PLGA) nanoparticles derived from Staphylococcus epidermidis bacterial cell was successfully visualized using scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). We also revealed the interaction between prepared Ag PLGA nanoparticles and the bacterial cells at the nanoscale level using field emission scanning electron microscopy and STEM, after a pretreatment process by an ionic liquid. This finding is significant to understand a fundamental function of S. epidermidis bacterial cells, which is not explored previously. The results suggest that Ag PLGA nanoparticles could demonstrate high efficacy against biofilm infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chisato Takahashi
- Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100, Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan.
| | - Nobuhiro Matsubara
- Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100, Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Yuki Akachi
- Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100, Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Noriko Ogawa
- Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100, Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Golap Kalita
- Department of Frontier Materials, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokisocho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8555, Japan
| | - Toru Asaka
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokisocho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8555, Japan
| | - Masaki Tanemura
- Department of Frontier Materials, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokisocho, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kawashima
- Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100, Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Yamamoto
- Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100, Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
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Takahashi C, Yamamoto H. PB-15STEM observation for understanding antibacterial mechanism of polymeric particles against biofilm. Microscopy (Oxf) 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfw093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Takahashi C, Akachi Y, Ogawa N, Moriguchi K, Asaka T, Tanemura M, Kawashima Y, Yamamoto H. Morphological study of efficacy of clarithromycin-loaded nanocarriers for treatment of biofilm infection disease. Med Mol Morphol 2016; 50:9-16. [PMID: 27119723 DOI: 10.1007/s00795-016-0141-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we developed a drug delivery system (DDS) using polymeric nanocarriers for the treatment of biofilm infection disease. Clarithromycin (CAM)-encapsulated and chitosan (CS) modified polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared using a polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol graft copolymer (Soluplus®) (Sol) and poly-(DL-lactide-co-glycolide), respectively. To understand the availability of the prepared NPs, we made morphological observations of the antibacterial activity derived from the NPs toward the bacterial cells within the biofilm using scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy measurements. These results revealed different antibacterial activities for the two types of drug carriers. In the case of CAM-encapsulated + CS-modified Sol micelles treatment, NPs can exert their antibacterial activity not only by the surfactant, CAM and CS effects but also by intrusion into the bacterial cells. Thereby, CAM-encapsulated + CS-modified Sol micelles had a higher antibacterial activity. The morphological information is useful to design suitable NPs for the treatment against biofilm infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chisato Takahashi
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Engineering, Aichi-Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan.
| | - Yuki Akachi
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Engineering, Aichi-Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Noriko Ogawa
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Engineering, Aichi-Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Keiichi Moriguchi
- Department of Oral Anatomy, School of Dentistry, Aichi-Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Toru Asaka
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokiso-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8555, Japan
| | - Masaki Tanemura
- Department of Frontier Materials, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokiso-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 466-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kawashima
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Engineering, Aichi-Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Yamamoto
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Engineering, Aichi-Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8650, Japan
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