1
|
Lodoso-Torrecilla I, Konka J, Kreuzer M, Jimenez-Pique E, Espanol M, Ginebra MP. Quality assessment of regenerated bone in intraosseous and intramuscular scaffolds by spectroscopy and nanoindentation. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2024; 164:213982. [PMID: 39098081 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2024.213982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
The efficiency of synthetic bone grafts can be evaluated either in osseous sites, to analyze osteoconduction or ectopically, in intramuscular or subcutaneous sites, to assess osteoinduction. Bone regeneration is usually evaluated in terms of the presence and quantity of newly formed bone, but little information is normally provided on the quality of this bone. Here, we propose a novel approach to evaluate bone quality by the combined use of spectroscopy techniques and nanoindentation. Calcium phosphate scaffolds with different architectures, either foamed or 3D-printed, that were implanted in osseous or intramuscular defects in Beagle dogs for 6 or 12 weeks were analyzed. ATR-FTIR and Raman spectroscopy were performed, and mineral-to-matrix ratio, crystallinity, and mineral and collagen maturity were calculated and mapped for the newly regenerated bone and the mature cortical bone from the same specimen. For all the parameters studied, the newly-formed bone showed lower values than the mature host bone. Hardness and elastic modulus were determined by nanoindentation and, in line with what was observed by spectroscopy, lower values were observed in the regenerated bone than in the cortical bone. While, as expected, all techniques pointed to an increase in the maturity of the newly-formed bone between 6 and 12 weeks, the bone found in the intramuscular samples after 12 weeks presented lower mineralization than the intraosseous counterparts. Moreover, scaffold architecture also played a role in bone maturity, with the foamed scaffolds showing higher mineralization and crystallinity than the 3D-printed scaffolds after 12 weeks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Lodoso-Torrecilla
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Group of Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joanna Konka
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Group of Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Martin Kreuzer
- CELLS-ALBA, Carrer de la Llum 2-26, 08290, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Emilio Jimenez-Pique
- Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, CIEFMA Group, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Montserrat Espanol
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Group of Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Bioingeniería, Biomedicina y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Maria-Pau Ginebra
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Group of Biomaterials, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Barcelona Research Centre in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red-Bioingeniería, Biomedicina y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Spain; Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Carrer Baldiri Reixac 10-12, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
López-Andaluz J, Flores-Fraile J, Javier-Borrajo, Blanco-Antona L, García-Carrodeguas R, López-Montañés D, García-Cenador M, García-Criado F. Assessment of rhBMP-2-loaded bovine hydroxyapatite granules in the guided bone regeneration of critical bone defect in rat mandible bone. J Dent Sci 2024; 19:276-284. [PMID: 38303875 PMCID: PMC10829555 DOI: 10.1016/j.jds.2023.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J. López-Andaluz
- Department of Surgery, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - J. Flores-Fraile
- Department of Surgery, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Javier-Borrajo
- Department of Physics, Engineering and Medical Radiology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - L. Blanco-Antona
- Department of Surgery, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - R. García-Carrodeguas
- Department de R&D and Biomaterial Production, Noricum S.L, Madrid, Spain
- Biosanitary Research Institute (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | | | - M.B. García-Cenador
- Department of Surgery, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
- Biosanitary Research Institute (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - F.J. García-Criado
- Department of Surgery, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
- Biosanitary Research Institute (IBSAL), Salamanca, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Graul LM, Horn SJ, Nash LD, Cheung TB, Clubb FJ, Maitland DJ. Image-Based Evaluation of In Vivo Degradation for Shape-Memory Polymer Polyurethane Foam. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:4122. [PMID: 36236069 PMCID: PMC9571375 DOI: 10.3390/polym14194122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Shape-memory polymer (SMP) polyurethane foams have been applied as embolic devices and implanted in multiple animal models. These materials are oxidatively degradable and it is critical to quantify and characterize the degradation for biocompatibility assessments. An image-based method using high-resolution and magnification scans of histology sections was used to estimate the mass loss of the peripheral and neurovascular embolization devices (PED, NED). Detailed analysis of foam microarchitecture (i.e., struts and membranes) was used to estimate total relative mass loss over time. PED foams implanted in porcine arteries showed a degradation rate of ~0.11% per day as evaluated at 30-, 60-, and 90-day explant timepoints. NED foams implanted in rabbit carotid elastase aneurysms showed a markedly faster rate of degradation at ~1.01% per day, with a clear difference in overall degradation between 30- and 90-day explants. Overall, membranes degraded faster than the struts. NEDs use more hydrophobic foam with a smaller pore size (~150-400 μm) compared to PED foams (~800-1200 μm). Previous in vitro studies indicated differences in the degradation of the two polymer systems, but not to the magnitude seen in vivo. Implant location, animal species, and local tissue health are among the hypothesized reasons for different degradation rates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lance M. Graul
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Staci J. Horn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | | | - Thomas B. Cheung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Fred J. Clubb
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Duncan J. Maitland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Shape Memory Medical Inc., Santa Clara, CA 95054, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Graul LM, Liu S, Maitland DJ. Theoretical error of sectional method for estimation of shape memory polyurethane foam mass loss. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 625:237-247. [PMID: 35716618 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.06.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Measuring in vivo degradation for polymeric scaffolds is critical for analysis of biocompatibility. Traditionally, histology has been used to estimate mass loss in scaffolds, allowing for simultaneous evaluation of mass loss and the biologic response to the implant. Oxidatively degradable shape memory polyurethane (SMP) foams have been implemented in two vascular occlusion devices: peripheral embolization device (PED) and neurovascular embolization device (NED). This work explores the errors introduced when using histological sections to evaluate mass loss. METHODS Models of the SMP foams were created to mimic the device geometry and the tetrakaidekahedral structure of the foam pore. These models were degraded in Blender for a wide range of possible degradation amounts and the mass loss was estimated using m sections. RESULTS As the number of sections (m) used to estimate mass loss for a volume increased the sampling error decreased and beyond m = 5, the decrease in error was insignificant. NED population and sampling errors were higher than for PED scenarios. When m ≥ 5, the averaged sampling error was below 1.5% for NED and 1% for PED scenarios. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION This study establishes a baseline sampling error for estimating randomly degraded porous scaffolds using a sectional method. Device geometry and the stage of mass loss influence the sampling error. Future studies will use non-random degradation to further investigate in vivo mass loss scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lance M Graul
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Shuling Liu
- Department of Statistics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Duncan J Maitland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gallinetti S, Burenstam Linder LK, Åberg J, Illies C, Engqvist H, Birgersson U. Titanium reinforced calcium phosphate improves bone formation and osteointegration in ovine calvaria defects: a comparative 52-weeks study. Biomed Mater 2020; 16. [PMID: 33181501 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/abca12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In a 52-week ovine calvaria implantation model, the restoration of cranial defects with a bare titanium mesh (Ti-mesh) and a titanium mesh embedded in a calcium phosphate (CaP-Ti) were evaluated in seven animals. During the study, no major clinical abnormalities were observed, and all sheep presented a normal neurologic assessment. Blood and CSF analysis, made at termination, did not show any abnormalities. No indentation of the soft tissue was observed for either test article; however, the Ti-mesh burr-hole covers were associated with filling of the calvarial defect by fibrous tissue mainly. Some bone formation was observed at the bottom of the created defect, but no significant bone was formed in the proximity of the implant. The defect sites implanted with CaP-Ti were characterized by a moderate degradation of the calcium phosphate that was replaced by mature bone tissue. Calcium-phosphate-filled macrophages were observed in all animals, indicating that they might play a vital role in osteogenesis. The newly formed bone was present, especially at the bony edges of the defect and on the dura side. Integration of the titanium mesh in a calcium phosphate improved bone formation and osteointegration in comparison to a bare titanium mesh.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Lars Kihlstrom Burenstam Linder
- Neurosurgery, Clinical Neuroscience Research Centre, Karolinska University Hospital, Eugeniav 3 Solna, Dartford, DA1 2EN, SWEDEN
| | - Jonas Åberg
- Department of Engineering Sciences, Applied Materials Science Section, Uppsala University, Uppsala, SWEDEN
| | - Christopher Illies
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SWEDEN
| | - Håkan Engqvist
- Department of Engineering Sciences, Applied Materials Science Section, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala, SWEDEN
| | - Ulrik Birgersson
- Clintec, Karolinska institutet Department of Clinical Sciences Intervention and Technology, Huddinge, SWEDEN
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hettich G, Schierjott RA, Epple M, Gbureck U, Heinemann S, Mozaffari-Jovein H, Grupp TM. Calcium Phosphate Bone Graft Substitutes with High Mechanical Load Capacity and High Degree of Interconnecting Porosity. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 12:E3471. [PMID: 31652704 PMCID: PMC6862383 DOI: 10.3390/ma12213471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Bone graft substitutes in orthopedic applications have to fulfill various demanding requirements. Most calcium phosphate (CaP) bone graft substitutes are highly porous to achieve bone regeneration, but typically lack mechanical stability. This study presents a novel approach, in which a scaffold structure with appropriate properties for bone regeneration emerges from the space between specifically shaped granules. The granule types were tetrapods (TEPO) and pyramids (PYRA), which were compared to porous CaP granules (CALC) and morselized bone chips (BC). Bulk materials of the granules were mechanically loaded with a peak pressure of 4 MP; i.e., comparable to the load occurring behind an acetabular cup. Mechanical loading reduced the volume of CALC and BC considerably (89% and 85%, respectively), indicating a collapse of the macroporous structure. Volumes of TEPO and PYRA remained almost constant (94% and 98%, respectively). After loading, the porosity was highest for BC (46%), lowest for CALC (25%) and comparable for TEPO and PYRA (37%). The pore spaces of TEPO and PYRA were highly interconnected in a way that a virtual object with a diameter of 150 µm could access 34% of the TEPO volume and 36% of the PYRA volume. This study shows that a bulk of dense CaP granules in form of tetrapods and pyramids can create a scaffold structure with load capacities suitable for the regeneration of an acetabular bone defect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georg Hettich
- Aesculap AG, Research & Development, Am Aesculap-Platz, 78532 Tuttlingen, Germany.
| | - Ronja A Schierjott
- Aesculap AG, Research & Development, Am Aesculap-Platz, 78532 Tuttlingen, Germany.
- Department of Orthopaedics, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Department of the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377 Munich, Germany.
| | - Matthias Epple
- Inorganic Chemistry and Center for Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CeNIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5-7, 45117 Essen, Germany.
| | - Uwe Gbureck
- Department for Functional Materials in Medicine and Dentistry, University of Wuerzburg, Pleicherwall 2, 97070 Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Sascha Heinemann
- INNOTERE biomaterial, Meissner Str. 191, 01445 Radebeul, Germany.
| | - Hadi Mozaffari-Jovein
- Institute of Materials Science and Engineering Tuttlingen (IWAT), Furtwangen University, Kronenstraße 16, 78532 Tuttlingen, Germany.
| | - Thomas M Grupp
- Aesculap AG, Research & Development, Am Aesculap-Platz, 78532 Tuttlingen, Germany.
- Department of Orthopaedics, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Department of the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377 Munich, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Deng L, Li Y, Zhang H. In vitro and in vivo assessment of glucose cross-linked gelatin/zein nanofibrous scaffolds for cranial bone defects regeneration. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2019; 108:1505-1517. [PMID: 31609542 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the glucose cross-linked gelatin/zein scaffolds for bone regeneration in vitro and in vivo. The nanofibrous scaffolds exhibited fast mineralization in the concentrated simulated body fluid with the deposited octacalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate dehydrate. The nanofibrous scaffolds exhibited no cytotoxic effect on MC3T3e1 cells in a CCK-8 test. Additionally, scanning electron microscope and confocal laser scanning microscopy images revealed that all the scaffolds were biocompatible and showed excellent support for MC3T3e1 cells. In the osteogenesis characterizations, Alizarin Red staining experiments indicated the improved calcium deposits on the cross-linked scaffolds, while the alkaline phosphatase activity showed no difference. Furthermore, the in vivo cranial bone regeneration results suggested that the cross-linked gelatin/zein scaffolds presented a strong positive effect on the cranial bone regeneration with the increased new bone volume and connective tissue formation, but the incorporation of zein in the gelatin scaffolds did not favor the bone regeneration. Moreover, the cross-linked gelatin scaffold retarded the bone resorption as indicated by the higher levels of IFN-γ and lower levels of IL-6, which restricted the differentiation of osteoclasts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lingli Deng
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,College of Biological Science and Technology, Hubei Minzu University, Enshi, China
| | - Yang Li
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Intraosteal Behavior of Porous Scaffolds: The mCT Raw-Data Analysis as a Tool for Better Understanding. Symmetry (Basel) 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/sym11040532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study is to determine the existing correlation between high-resolution 3D imaging technique obtained through Micro Computed Tomography (mCT) and histological-histomorphometric images to determine in vivo bone osteogenic behavior of bioceramic scaffolds. A Ca-Si-P scaffold ceramic doped and non-doped (control) with a natural demineralized bone matrix (DBM) were implanted in rabbit tibias for 1, 3, and 5 months. A progressive disorganization and disintegration of scaffolds and bone neoformation occurs, from the periphery to the center of the implants, without any differences between histomorphometric and radiological analysis. However, significant differences (p < 0.05) between DMB-doped and non-doped materials where only detected through mathematical analysis of mCT. In this way, average attenuation coefficient for DMB-doped decreased from 0.99 ± 0.23 Hounsfield Unit (HU) (3 months) to 0.86 ± 0.32 HU (5 months). Average values for non-doped decreased from 0.86 ± 0.25 HU (3 months) to 0.66 ± 0.33 HU. Combination of radiological analysis and mathematical mCT seems to provide an adequate in vivo analysis of bone-implanted biomaterials after surgery, obtaining similar results to the one provided by histomorphometric analysis. Mathematical analysis of Computed Tomography (CT) would allow the conducting of long-term duration in vivo studies, without the need for animal sacrifice, and the subsequent reduction in variability.
Collapse
|
9
|
Formation and in vitro mineralization of electrochemically deposited coatings prepared on micro-arc oxidized titanium alloy. J APPL ELECTROCHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10800-019-01293-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
|
10
|
Osorio DA, Lee BEJ, Kwiecien JM, Wang X, Shahid I, Hurley AL, Cranston ED, Grandfield K. Cross-linked cellulose nanocrystal aerogels as viable bone tissue scaffolds. Acta Biomater 2019; 87:152-165. [PMID: 30710708 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.01.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chemically cross-linked cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) aerogels possess many properties beneficial for bone tissue scaffolding applications. CNCs were extracted using sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid, to produce CNCs with sulfate and phosphate half-ester surface groups, respectively. Hydrazone cross-linked aerogels fabricated from the two types of CNCs were investigated using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray micro-computed tomography, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, nitrogen sorption isotherms, and compression testing. CNC aerogels were evaluatedin vitrowith osteoblast-like Saos-2 cells and showed an increase in cell metabolism up to 7 days while alkaline phosphatase assays revealed that cells maintained their phenotype. All aerogels demonstrated hydroxyapatite growth over 14 days while submerged in simulated body fluid solution with a 0.1 M CaCl2 pre-treatment. Sulfated CNC aerogels slightly outperformed phosphated CNC aerogels in terms of compressive strength and long-term stability in liquid environments, and were implanted into the calvarian bone of adult male Long Evans rats. Compared to controls at 3 and 12 week time points, sulfated CNC aerogels showed increased bone volume fraction of 33% and 50%, respectively, compared to controls, and evidence of osteoconductivity. These results demonstrate that cross-linked CNC aerogels are flexible, porous and effectively facilitate bone growth after they are implanted in bone defects. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Due to the potential complications associated with autografts, there is a need for synthetic bone tissue scaffolds. Here, we report a new naturally-based aerogel material for bone regeneration made solely from chemically cross-linked cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). These highly porous CNC aerogels were shown to promote the proliferation of bone-like cells and support the growth of hydroxyapatite on their surface in vitro. The first in vivo study on these materials was conducted in rats and showed their osteconductive properties and an increase in bone volume up to 50% compared to sham sites. This study demonstrates the potential of using functionalized cellulose nanocrystals as the basis for aerogel scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Osorio
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada; Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Bryan E J Lee
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Jacek M Kwiecien
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada; Department of Clinical Pathomorphology, Medical University of Lublin, Aleje Raclawickie 1, Lublin, Poland
| | - Xiaoyue Wang
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Iflah Shahid
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Ariana L Hurley
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Emily D Cranston
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada; Department of Wood Science, The University of British Columbia, 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| | - Kathryn Grandfield
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada; School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|