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Xiao Y, Xie X, Chen Z, Yin G, Kong W, Zhou J. Advances in the roles of ATF4 in osteoporosis. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 169:115864. [PMID: 37948991 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoporosis (OP) is characterized by reduced bone mass, decreased strength, and enhanced bone fragility fracture risk. Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) plays a role in cell differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, redox balance, amino acid uptake, and glycolipid metabolism. ATF4 induces the differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) into osteoblasts, increases osteoblast activity, and inhibits osteoclast formation, promoting bone formation and remodeling. In addition, ATF4 mediates the energy metabolism in osteoblasts and promotes angiogenesis. ATF4 is also involved in the mediation of adipogenesis. ATF4 can selectively accumulate in osteoblasts. ATF4 can directly interact with RUNT-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) and up-regulate the expression of osteocalcin (OCN) and osterix (Osx). Several upstream factors, such as Wnt/β-catenin and BMP2/Smad signaling pathways, have been involved in ATF4-mediated osteoblast differentiation. ATF4 promotes osteoclastogenesis by mediating the receptor activator of nuclear factor κ-B (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL) signaling. Several agents, such as parathyroid (PTH), melatonin, and natural compounds, have been reported to regulate ATF4 expression and mediate bone metabolism. In this review, we comprehensively discuss the biological activities of ATF4 in maintaining bone homeostasis and inhibiting OP development. ATF4 has become a therapeutic target for OP treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaosheng Xiao
- Department of Orthopaetics, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou 341000, China
| | - Xunlu Xie
- Department of Pathology, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Ganzhou 341000, China
| | - Zhixi Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou 341000, China
| | - Guoqiang Yin
- Ganzhou Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Ganzhou 341000, China
| | - Weihao Kong
- Department of Joint Surgery, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Ganzhou 341000, China
| | - Jianguo Zhou
- Department of Joint Surgery, Ganzhou People's Hospital, Ganzhou 341000, China.
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Kathiresan N, Selvaraj C, Pandian S, Subbaraj GK, Alothaim AS, Safi SZ, Kulathaivel L. Proteomics and genomics insights on malignant osteosarcoma. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 138:275-300. [PMID: 38220428 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2023.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
Osteosarcoma is a malignant osseous neoplasm. Osteosarcoma is a primary bone malignancy capable of producing osteoid tissue or immature bones. A subsequent malignant degeneration of the primary bone pathology occurs less frequently in adults. The over-expression of several proteins, including Heat shock proteins, Cofilin, Annexins, Insulin-like growth factor, transforming growth factor-β, Receptor tyrosine kinase, Ezrin, Runx2, SATB2, ATF4, Annexins, cofilin, EGFR, VEGF, retinoblastoma 1 (Rb1) and secreted protein, has been associated to the development and progression of osteosarcoma. These proteins are involved in cell adhesion, migration, invasion, and the control of cell cycle and apoptosis. In genomic studies, osteosarcoma has been associated with several genetic abnormalities, including chromosomal rearrangements, gene mutations, and gene amplifications. These differentially expressed proteins could be used as early identification biomarkers or treatment targets. Proteomics and genomics play significant parts in enhancing our molecular understanding of osteosarcoma, and their integration provides essential insights into this aggressive bone cancer. This review will discuss the tumour biology that has assisted in helping us better understand the causes of osteosarcoma and how they could potentially be used to find new treatment targets and enhance the survival rate for osteosarcoma patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nachammai Kathiresan
- Department of Biotechnology, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Chandrabose Selvaraj
- Computational and Structural Research in Drug Design Lab (CSRDD), Center for Global Health Research, Saveetha Medical College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha Nagar, Thandalam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Sangavi Pandian
- Department of Bioinformatics, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gowtham Kumar Subbaraj
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Old Mahabalipuram Road (OMR), Kelambakkam
| | - Abdulaziz S Alothaim
- Department of Biology, College of Science in Zulfi, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sher Zaman Safi
- Faculty of Medicine, Bioscience and Nursing, MAHSA University, Jenjarom, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Langeswaran Kulathaivel
- Department of Biomedical Science, Alagappa University, Science Campus, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Liu Z, Wang Q, Zhang J, Qi S, Duan Y, Li C. The Mechanotransduction Signaling Pathways in the Regulation of Osteogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14326. [PMID: 37762629 PMCID: PMC10532275 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241814326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Bones are constantly exposed to mechanical forces from both muscles and Earth's gravity to maintain bone homeostasis by stimulating bone formation. Mechanotransduction transforms external mechanical signals such as force, fluid flow shear, and gravity into intracellular responses to achieve force adaptation. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms on the conversion from mechanical signals into bone formation has not been completely defined yet. In the present review, we provide a comprehensive and systematic description of the mechanotransduction signaling pathways induced by mechanical stimuli during osteogenesis and address the different layers of interconnections between different signaling pathways. Further exploration of mechanotransduction would benefit patients with osteoporosis, including the aging population and postmenopausal women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoshuo Liu
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Qilin Wang
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Junyou Zhang
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Sihan Qi
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yingying Duan
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Chunyan Li
- School of Engineering Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Key Laboratory of Big Data-Based Precision Medicine (Ministry of Industry and Information Technology), Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
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Daradur J, Kesserwan M, Freese NH, Loraine AE, Riggs CD. Genomic targets of HOP2 are enriched for features found at recombination hotspots. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.25.525520. [PMID: 36747711 PMCID: PMC9900786 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.25.525520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
HOP2 is a conserved protein that plays a positive role in homologous chromosome pairing and a separable role in preventing illegitimate connections between nonhomologous chromosome regions during meiosis. We employed ChIP-seq to discover that Arabidopsis HOP2 binds along the length of all chromosomes, except for centromeric and nucleolar organizer regions, and no binding sites were detected in the organelle genomes. A large number of reads were assigned to the HOP2 locus itself, yet TAIL-PCR and SNP analysis of the aligned sequences indicate that many of these reads originate from the transforming T-DNA, supporting the role of HOP2 in preventing nonhomologous exchanges. The 292 ChIP-seq peaks are largely found in promoter regions and downstream from genes, paralleling the distribution of recombination hotspots, and motif analysis revealed that there are several conserved sequences that are also enriched at crossover sites. We conducted coimmunoprecipitation of HOP2 followed by LC-MS/MS and found enrichment for several proteins, including some histone variants and modifications that are also known to be associated with recombination hotspots. We propose that HOP2 may be directed to chromatin motifs near double strand breaks, where homology checks are proposed to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenya Daradur
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Mohamad Kesserwan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Nowlan H. Freese
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, Charlotte, N.C. USA
| | - Ann E. Loraine
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, Charlotte, N.C. USA
| | - C. Daniel Riggs
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M1C1A4, Canada
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Farahani-Tafreshi Y, Wei C, Gan P, Daradur J, Riggs CD, Hasenkampf CA. The Arabidopsis HOP2 gene has a role in preventing illegitimate connections between nonhomologous chromosome regions. Chromosome Res 2022; 30:59-75. [DOI: 10.1007/s10577-021-09681-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Lin T, Zhang Y, Zhang T, Steckler RA, Yang X. Hop2 interacts with the transcription factor CEBPα and suppresses adipocyte differentiation. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101264. [PMID: 34600885 PMCID: PMC8528721 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
CCAAT enhancer binding protein (CEBP) transcription factors (TFs) are known to promote adipocyte differentiation; however, suppressors of CEBP TFs have not been reported thus far. Here, we find that homologous chromosome pairing protein 2 (Hop2) functions as an inhibitor for the TF CEBPα. We found that Hop2 mRNA is highly and specifically expressed in adipose tissue, and that ectopic Hop2 expression suppresses reporter activity induced by CEBP as revealed by DNA transfection. Recombinant and ectopically expressed Hop2 was shown to interact with CEBPα in pull-down and coimmunoprecipitation assays, and interaction between endogenous Hop2 and CEBPα was observed in the nuclei of 3T3 preadipocytes and adipocytes by immunofluorescence and coimmunoprecipitation of nuclear extracts. In addition, Hop2 stable overexpression in 3T3 preadipocytes inhibited adipocyte differentiation and adipocyte marker gene expression. These in vitro data suggest that Hop2 inhibits adipogenesis by suppressing CEBP-mediated transactivation. Consistent with a negative role for Hop2 in adipogenesis, ablation of Hop2 (Hop2-/-) in mice led to increased body weight, adipose volume, adipocyte size, and adipogenic marker gene expression. Adipogenic differentiation of isolated adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells showed a greater number of lipid droplet-containing colonies formed in Hop2-/- adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell cultures than in wt controls, which is associated with the increased expression of adipogenic marker genes. Finally, chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed a higher binding activity of endogenous CEBPα to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, a master adipogenic TF, and a known CEBPα target gene. Therefore, our study identifies for the first time that Hop2 is an intrinsic suppressor of CEBPα and thus adipogenesis in adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonghui Lin
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Rita A Steckler
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Xiangli Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, Texas, USA.
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Beyond the Double-Strand Breaks: The Role of DNA Repair Proteins in Cancer Stem-Cell Regulation. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13194818. [PMID: 34638302 PMCID: PMC8508278 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13194818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a tumor cell population maintaining tumor growth and promoting tumor relapse if not wholly eradicated during treatment. CSCs are often equipped with molecular mechanisms making them resistant to conventional anti-cancer therapies whose curative potential depends on DNA damage-induced cell death. An elevated expression of some key DNA repair proteins is one of such defense mechanisms. However, new research reveals that the role of critical DNA repair proteins is extending far beyond the DNA repair mechanisms. This review discusses the diverse biological functions of DNA repair proteins in CSC maintenance and the adaptation to replication and oxidative stress, anti-cancer immune response, epigenetic reprogramming, and intracellular signaling mechanisms. It also provides an overview of their potential therapeutic targeting. Abstract Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are pluripotent and highly tumorigenic cells that can re-populate a tumor and cause relapses even after initially successful therapy. As with tissue stem cells, CSCs possess enhanced DNA repair mechanisms. An active DNA damage response alleviates the increased oxidative and replicative stress and leads to therapy resistance. On the other hand, mutations in DNA repair genes cause genomic instability, therefore driving tumor evolution and developing highly aggressive CSC phenotypes. However, the role of DNA repair proteins in CSCs extends beyond the level of DNA damage. In recent years, more and more studies have reported the unexpected role of DNA repair proteins in the regulation of transcription, CSC signaling pathways, intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). Moreover, DNA damage signaling plays an essential role in the immune response towards tumor cells. Due to its high importance for the CSC phenotype and treatment resistance, the DNA damage response is a promising target for individualized therapies. Furthermore, understanding the dependence of CSC on DNA repair pathways can be therapeutically exploited to induce synthetic lethality and sensitize CSCs to anti-cancer therapies. This review discusses the different roles of DNA repair proteins in CSC maintenance and their potential as therapeutic targets.
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Signaling Pathway and Transcriptional Regulation in Osteoblasts during Bone Healing: Direct Involvement of Hydroxyapatite as a Biomaterial. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14070615. [PMID: 34206843 PMCID: PMC8308723 DOI: 10.3390/ph14070615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone defects and periodontal disease are pathological conditions that may become neglected diseases if not treated properly. Hydroxyapatite (HA), along with tricalcium phosphate and bioglass ceramic, is a biomaterial widely applied to orthopedic and dental uses. The in vivo performance of HA is determined by the interaction between HA particles with bone cells, particularly the bone mineralizing cells osteoblasts. It has been reported that HA-induced osteoblastic differentiation by increasing the expression of osteogenic transcription factors. However, the pathway involved and the events that occur in the cell membrane have not been well understood and remain controversial. Advances in gene editing and the discovery of pharmacologic inhibitors assist researchers to better understand osteoblastic differentiation. This review summarizes the involvement of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, Wnt, and bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) in osteoblastic cellular regulation induced by HA. These advances enhance the current understanding of the molecular mechanism of HA as a biomaterial. Moreover, they provide a better strategy for the design of HA to be utilized in bone engineering.
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Oct4 confers stemness and radioresistance to head and neck squamous cell carcinoma by regulating the homologous recombination factors PSMC3IP and RAD54L. Oncogene 2021; 40:4214-4228. [PMID: 34079088 PMCID: PMC8211562 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-021-01842-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is often being diagnosed at an advanced stage, conferring a poor prognosis. The probability of local tumor control after radiotherapy depends on the eradication of cancer stem cells (CSCs) with activated DNA repair. This study provides evidence that the CSC-related transcription factor Oct4 contributes to HNSCC radioresistance by regulating DNA damage response and the CSC phenotype. Knockdown of Oct4 A isoform reduced self-renewal capacity in HNSCC and led to partial tumor cell radiosensitization caused by transcriptional downregulation of the cell cycle checkpoint kinases CHK1 and WEE1 and homologous recombination (HR) repair genes PSMC3IP and RAD54L. Besides, PARP inhibition with Olaparib selectively radiosensitized Oct4 A knockout, but not wild-type HNSCC cells. This finding links Oct4 A to the HR-mediated DNA repair mechanisms. In turn, knockdown of PSMC3IP and RAD54L reduced the HNSCC self-renewal capacity and clonogenic cell survival after irradiation, suggesting the interplay between DNA repair and the CSC phenotype. Similar to the effect of Oct4 knockdown, overexpression of Oct4 also resulted in significant HNSCC radiosensitization and increased DNA damage, suggesting that Oct4-dependent regulation of DNA repair depends on its fine-tuned expression. In line with this observation, HNSCC patients with high and low nuclear Oct4 expression at the invasive tumor front exhibited better loco-regional tumor control after postoperative radio(chemo)therapy compared to the intermediate expression subgroup. Thus, we found that the Oct4-driven transcriptional program plays a critical role in regulating HNSCC radioresistance, and a combination of radiotherapy with PARP inhibitors may induce synthetic lethality in Oct4-deregulated tumors.
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A Novel Long Noncoding RNA, Lnc-OAD, Is Required for Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2- (BMP-2-) Induced Osteoblast Differentiation. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6697749. [PMID: 33816629 PMCID: PMC7987440 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6697749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play very important roles in cell differentiation. Our recent study has demonstrated that a novel lncRNA named lnc-OAD modulated 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation. In the present study, we examined the roles of lnc-OAD in bone morphogenetic protein 2- (BMP-2-) induced osteoblast differentiation. Lnc-OAD expression was increased during BMP-2-induced osteoblast differentiation in C3H10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells and MC3T3-E1 preosteoblast cells. Knockdown of lnc-OAD expression by specific siRNA remarkably decreased early osteoblast differentiation. In addition, stable knockdown of lnc-OAD by lentivirus vector also significantly inhibited late osteoblast differentiation and matrix mineralization in vitro. Conversely, stably overexpressed lnc-OAD with lentiviral vector accelerated osteoblast differentiation. Mechanistically, knockdown of lnc-OAD reduced significantly the phosphorylation of AKT and the expression of Osterix induced by BMP-2, while overexpression of lnc-OAD enhanced the phosphorylation of AKT and the expression of Osterix. Taken together, our study suggests that lnc-OAD plays an important role in modulating BMP-2-induced osteoblast differentiation via, at least in part, regulating the AKT-Osterix signaling axis.
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miR-214 Attenuates Aortic Valve Calcification by Regulating Osteogenic Differentiation of Valvular Interstitial Cells. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2020; 22:971-980. [PMID: 33251046 PMCID: PMC7679242 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2020.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD) is a common heart valve disease in aging populations, and aberrant osteogenic differentiation of valvular interstitial cells (VICs) plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of ectopic ossification of the aortic valve. miR-214 has been validated to be involved in the osteogenesis process. Here, we aim to investigate the role and mechanism of miR-214 in CAVD progression. miR-214 expression was significantly downregulated in CAVD aortic valve leaflets, accompanied by upregulation of osteogenic markers. Overexpression of miR-214 suppressed osteogenic differentiation of VICs, while silencing the expression of miR-214 promoted this function. miR-214 directly targeted ATF4 and Sp7 to modulate osteoblastic differentiation of VICs, which was proved by dual luciferase reporter assay and rescue experiment. miR-214 knockout rats exhibited higher mean transvalvular velocity and gradient. The expression of osteogenic markers in aortic valve leaflets of miR-214 knockout rats was upregulated compared to that of the wild-type group. Taken together, our study showed that miR-214 inhibited aortic valve calcification via regulating osteogenic differentiation of VICs by directly targeting ATF4 and Sp7, indicating that miR-214 may act as a profound candidate of targeting therapy for CAVD.
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