Biotin, coenzyme Q10, and their combination ameliorate aluminium chloride-induced Alzheimer's disease via attenuating neuroinflammation and improving brain insulin signaling

Reciprocal crosslink among MeCP2/BDNF /CREB signaling pinpointed in autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder, or individual disability (ID), is a condition characterized by complications in social interaction, restricted repetitive behavior, and difficulties in social communication. Neuquinon (NQ) possess a powerful therapeutic potential in various neurodegenerative disease. Nevertheless, contributing to NQ's low water solubility and bioavailability, its medicinal use has been constrained. Liposomes were supposed to be prospective drug-delivering agents for NQ, crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and reaching the target organs. The current investigation aims to track the signaling pathways that govern NQ and liposomal neuquinon (LNQ) action in autistic models generated by ethyl formic acid. The neurotransmitters gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA), acetylcholine (ACh), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in addition to, the gene expressions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) and the DNA damage COMET analysis at different time intervals of the study, were assessed. EFA in a dose of 500 mg/kg BW was used to induce autism in rats, and then NQ and LNQ were administered in 10 mg/kg and 2 mg/kg BW, respectively. The results revealed that NQ and LNQ significantly down-regulated BDNF, GABA, and AChE; on the other hand, they up-regulated MeCP2, CREB gene expressions, and ACh action. NQ and LNQ displayed improvement in DNA damage in almost all brain regions after EFA alterations; even better results were noticed post-LNQ therapy. Therefore, it may be concluded that neuquinon and liposomal-loaded neuquinon have a therapeutic index versus EFA-induced autism in a rat model.

Oxidative Stress, Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Apoptosis in the Pathology of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) accounts for a major statistic among the class of neurodegenerative diseases. A number of mechanisms have been identified in its pathogenesis and progression which include the amyloid beta (Aβ) aggregation, hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and apoptosis. These processes are interconnected and contribute significantly to the loss of neurons, brain mass and consequential memory loss and other cognitive difficulties. Oxidative stress in AD appears to be caused by excess of oxygen free radicals and extracellular Aβ deposits that cause local inflammatory processes and activate microglia, another possible source of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ER Stress describes the accumulation of misfolded and unfolded proteins as a result of physiological and pathological stimuli including high protein demand, toxins, inflammatory cytokines, and mutant protein expression that disturbs ER homeostasis. When compared to age-matched controls, postmortem brain tissues from AD patients showed elevated levels of ER stress markers, such as PERK, eIF2α, IRE1α, the chaperone Grp78, and the downstream mediator of cell death CHOP. Apoptosis is in charge of eliminating unnecessary and undesired cells to maintain good health. However, it has been demonstrated that a malfunctioning apoptotic pathway is a major factor in the development of certain neurological and immunological problems and diseases in people, including neurodegenerative diseases. This article highlights and discussed some of the experimentally established mechanisms through which these processes lead to the development as well as the exacerbation of AD.

New bithiophene derivative attenuated Alzheimer's disease induced by aluminum in a rat model via antioxidant activity and restoration of neuronal and synaptic transmission

BACKGROUND

One of the hypotheses that leads to an increased incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the accumulation of aluminum in the brain's frontal cortex. The present study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic role of a novel bithiophene derivative at two doses against AlCl3-induced AD in a rat model.

METHODOLOGY

Adult male rats were divided into six groups, 18 rats each. Group 1: naïve animals, group 2: animals received a daily oral administration of bithiophene dissolved in DMSO (1 mg/kg) for 30 days every other day, groups 3-6: animals received a daily oral administration of AlCl3 (100 mg/kg/day) for 45 consecutive days. Groups 4 and 5 received an oral administration of low or high dose of the bithiophene (0.5 or 1 mg/kg, respectively). Group 6; Animals were treated with a daily oral dose of memantine (20 mg/kg) for 30 consecutive days.

MAIN FINDINGS

Al disturbed the antioxidant milieu, elevated the lipid peroxidation, and depleted the antioxidants. It also disturbed the synaptic neurotransmission by elevating the activities of acetylcholine esterase and monoamine oxidase resulting in the depletion of dopamine and serotonin and accumulation of glutamate and norepinephrine. Al also deteriorated the expression of genes involved in apoptosis and the production of amyloid-β plaques as well as phosphorylation of tau. The new bithiophene at the low dose reversed most of the previous deleterious effects of aluminum in the cerebral cortex and was in many instances superior to the reference drug; memantine.

CONCLUSION

Taking together, the bithiophene modulated the AD etiology through antioxidant activity, prevention of neuronal and synaptic loss, and probably mitigating the formation of amyloid-β plaques and phosphorylation of tau.

Barbaloin's Chemical Intervention in Aluminum Chloride Induced Cognitive Deficits and Changes in Rats through Modulation of Oxidative Stress, Cytokines, and BDNF Expression

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a long-term neurodegenerative condition characterized by impaired cognitive functions, particularly in the domains of learning and memory. Finding promising options for AD can be successful with a medication repurposing strategy. The goal of the research was to examine the neuroprotective characteristics of barbaloin in aluminum chloride (AlCl3)-induced cognitive deficits and changes in rats through modulation of oxidative stress, cytokines, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Thirty male Wistar rats were subjected to AlCl3 at a dosage of 100 mg/kg via the per oral route (p.o.), which induced cognitive decline. Morris water maze (MWM) is used to assess behavioral metrics. Assays for catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), choline-acetyltransferase (ChAT), interleukins-1β (IL-1β), superoxide dismutase (SOD), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), interleukins-6 (IL-6), BDNF, and neurotransmitter levels [dopamine (DA), acetylcholine (Ach), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)] were performed. Results: The transfer latency time was notably decreased, and substantial modifications in the concentrations of GSH, MDA, CAT, SOD, AChE, ChAT and observed modulations in the formation of interleukins-6 (IL-6), TNF-α, IL-1β, BDNF, and NF-κB were also evidenced after the treatment of rats with barbaloin in comparison to AlCl3-induced control groups. Significant alterations in neurotransmitter levels (DA, Ach, and GABA) were also seen in barbaloin-treated groups in comparison to AlCl3-induced groups. The current investigation has provided evidence that the administration of barbaloin yielded notable enhancements in cognitive function in rats through the inhibition of MDA, enhancing endogenous antioxidant enzymes, reduction of cytokine levels, and enhancement of neurotransmitter contents in the brain. These effects were observed in comparison to a control group treated with AlCl3 and can be attributable to barbaloin's strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and metal chelating properties may contribute to its neuroprotective effects. Barbaloin may also promote neuronal survival and enhance learning and memory by upregulating the expression of BDNF.

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate alters neurobehavioral responses and oxidative status, architecture, and GFAP and BDNF signaling in juvenile rat's brain: Protective role of Coenzyme10

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a phthalate plasticizer, is widely spread in the environment, presenting hazards to human health and food safety. Hence, this study examined the probable preventive role of coenzyme10 (CQ10) (10 mg/kg.b.wt) against DEHP (500 mg/kg.wt) - induced neurotoxic and neurobehavioral impacts in juvenile (34 ± 1.01g and 3 weeks old) male Sprague Dawley rats in 35-days oral dosing trial. The results indicated that CQ10 significantly protected against DEHP-induced memory impairment, anxiety, depression, spatial learning disorders, and repetitive/stereotypic-like behavior. Besides, the DEHP-induced depletion in dopamine and gamma amino butyric acid levels was significantly restored by CQ10. Moreover, CQ10 significantly protected against the exhaustion of CAT, GPx, SOD, GSH, and GSH/GSSG ratio, as well as the increase in malondialdehyde, Caspas-3, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha brain content accompanying with DEHP exposure. Furthermore, CQ10 significantly protected the brain from the DEHP-induced neurodegenerative alterations. Also, the increased immunoexpression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, not glial fibrillary acidic protein, in the cerebral, hippocampal, and cerebellar brain tissues due to DEHP exposure was alleviated with CQ10. This study's findings provide conclusive evidence that CQ10 has the potential to be used as an efficient natural protective agent against the neurobehavioral and neurotoxic consequences of DEHP.

Coenzyme Q10 attenuates neurodegeneration in the cerebellum induced by chronic exposure to tramadol

BACKGROUND

Chronic use of tramadol can cause neurotoxic effects and subsequently cause neurodegeneration in the cerebellum. The main damage mechanisms identified are oxidative stress and inflammation. Currently, we investigated the effects of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) in attenuates of neurodegeneration in the cerebellum induced by chronic exposure to tramadol.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Seventy-two male mature albino rats were allocated into four equal groups, including; non-treated group, CoQ10 group (which received CoQ10 at 200 mg/kg/day orally for three weeks), tramadol group (which received tramadol hydrochloride at 50 mg/kg/day orally for three weeks), and tramadol+CoQ10 group (which received tramadol and CoQ10 at the same doses as the previous groups). Tissue samples were obtained for stereological, immunohistochemical, biochemical, and molecular evaluations. Also, functional tests were performed to evaluate behavioral properties.

RESULTS

We found a significant increase in stereological parameters, antioxidant factors (catalase, glutathione, and superoxide dismutase), and behavioral function scores in the tramadol+CoQ10 group compared to the tramadol group (p < 0.05). In addition, malondialdehyde levels, the density of apoptotic cells, as well as the expression of pro-inflammatory (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1 beta, and interleukin 6) and autophagy (lysosome-associated membrane protein 2, autophagy-related 5, beclin 1, and autophagy-related 12) genes were considerably reduced in the tramadol+CoQ10 group compared to the tramadol group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

We conclude that the administration of CoQ10 has neuroprotective effects in the cerebellum of rats that have chronic exposure to tramadol.

Bioinorganic Chemistry of Micronutrients Related to Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases

Metal ions are fundamental to guarantee the regular physiological activity of the human organism. Similarly, vitamins play a key role in many biological functions of the metabolism, among which are coenzymes, redox mediators, and antioxidants. Due to their importance in the human organism, both metals and vitamins have been extensively studied for their involvement in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). However, the full potential of the interaction between vitamins and metal ions has not been fully explored by researchers yet, and further investigation on this topic is needed. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the scientific literature on the implications of vitamins and selected metal ions in two of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Furthermore, vitamin-metal ion interactions are discussed in detail focusing on their bioinorganic chemistry, with the perspective of arousing more interest in this fascinating bioinorganic field.

Profiling and Cellular Analyses of Obesity-Related circRNAs in Neurons and Glia under Obesity-like In Vitro Conditions

Recent evidence indicates that the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, is associated with metabolic disorders such as diabetes and obesity. Various circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been found in brain tissues and recent studies have suggested that circRNAs are related to neuropathological mechanisms in the brain. However, there is a lack of interest in the involvement of circRNAs in metabolic imbalance-related neuropathological problems until now. Herein we profiled and analyzed diverse circRNAs in mouse brain cell lines (Neuro-2A neurons, BV-2 microglia, and C8-D1a astrocytes) exposed to obesity-related in vitro conditions (high glucose, high insulin, and high levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 6, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, and cholesterol). We observed that various circRNAs were differentially expressed according to cell types with many of these circRNAs conserved in humans. After suppressing the expression of these circRNAs using siRNAs, we observed that these circRNAs regulate genes related to inflammatory responses, formation of synaptic vesicles, synaptic density, and fatty acid oxidation in neurons; scavenger receptors in microglia; and fatty acid signaling, inflammatory signaling cyto that may play important roles in metabolic disorders associated with neurodegenerative diseases.

Coenzyme Q10 and Dementia: A Systematic Review

It is well known that coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀) has important antioxidant properties. Because one of the main mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative diseases is oxidative stress, analysis of the concentrations of CoQ₁₀ in different tissues of AD patients and with other dementia syndromes and the possible therapeutic role of CoQ₁₀ in AD have been addressed in several studies. We performed a systematic review and a meta-analysis of these studies measuring tissue CoQ₁₀ levels in patients with dementia and controls which showed that, compared with controls, AD patients had similar serum/plasma CoQ₁₀ levels. We also revised the possible therapeutic effects of CoQ₁₀ in experimental models of AD and other dementias (which showed important neuroprotective effects of coenzyme Q₁₀) and in humans with AD, other dementias, and mild cognitive impairment (with inconclusive results). The potential role of CoQ₁₀ treatment in AD and in improving memory in aged rodents shown in experimental models deserves future studies in patients with AD, other causes of dementia, and mild cognitive impairment.

Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants against Alzheimer's Disease: Prevention, Diagnosis and Therapy

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive memory loss and cognitive decline. Although substantial research has been conducted to elucidate the complex pathophysiology of AD, the therapeutic approach still has limited efficacy in clinical practice. Oxidative stress (OS) has been established as an early driver of several age-related diseases, including neurodegeneration. In AD, increased levels of reactive oxygen species mediate neuronal lipid, protein, and nucleic acid peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, synaptic damage, and inflammation. Thus, the identification of novel antioxidant molecules capable of detecting, preventing, and counteracting AD onset and progression is of the utmost importance. However, although several studies have been published, comprehensive and up-to-date overviews of the principal anti-AD agents harboring antioxidant properties remain scarce. In this narrative review, we summarize the role of vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, non-flavonoids, mitochondria-targeting molecules, organosulfur compounds, and carotenoids as non-enzymatic antioxidants with AD diagnostic, preventative, and therapeutic potential, thereby offering insights into the relationship between OS and neurodegeneration.

Intranasal Oxytocin Attenuates Cognitive Impairment, β-Amyloid Burden and Tau Deposition in Female Rats with Alzheimer's Disease: Interplay of ERK1/2/GSK3β/Caspase-3

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide hormone that plays an important role in social bonding and behavior. Recent studies indicate that oxytocin could be involved in the regulation of neurological disorders. However, its role in modulating cognition in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has never been explored. Hence, the present study aims to investigate the potential of chronic intranasal oxytocin in halting memory impairment & AD pathology in aluminum chloride-induced AD in female rats. Morris water maze was used to assess cognitive dysfunction in two-time points throughout the treatment period. In addition, neuroprotective effects of oxytocin were examined by assessing hippocampal acetylcholinesterase activity, β-amyloid 1–42 protein, and Tau levels. In addition, ERK1/2, GSK3β, and caspase-3 levels were assessed as chief neurobiochemical mediators in AD. Hippocampi histopathological changes were also evaluated. These findings were compared to the standard drug galantamine alone and combined with oxytocin. Results showed that oxytocin restored cognitive functions and improved animals’ behavior in the Morris test. This was accompanied by a significant decline in acetylcholinesterase activity, 1–42 β-amyloid and Tau proteins levels. Hippocampal ERK1/2 and GSK3β were also reduced, exceeding galantamine effects, thus attenuating AD pathological hallmarks formation. Determination of caspase-3 revealed low cytoplasmic positivity, indicating the ceasing of neuronal death. Histopathological examination confirmed these findings, showing restored hippocampal cells structure. Combined galantamine and oxytocin treatment showed even better biochemical and histopathological profiles. It can be thus concluded that oxytocin possesses promising neuroprotective potential in AD mediated via restoring cognition and suppressing β-amyloid, Tau accumulation, and neuronal death.

Changes in the Immunity, Histopathology, and Metabolism of Crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) in Response to Drought

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened ecosystems on Earth. The freshwater biodiversity crisis has caused widespread global concern. Drought as one of the factors causing freshwater biodiversity is still poorly understood. Crayfish is often used in academic research as a biological indicator. In this study, flow cytometry, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and untargeted metabolomics were used to analyze the immune function, histopathology, and metabolism of crayfish under drought conditions. After drought exposure, the total hemocytes count (THC) was significantly decreased (from 8.9 × 105 mL−1 in the control group to 2.2 × 105 mL−1 at day 5). Phagocytosis decreased by 66% after 5 days of drought. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the hepatopancreas was upregulated. Moreover, histological disorder and metabolism changes in the hepatopancreas were obvious. These results indicate that drought suppresses immune function, disrupts the balance of oxidative and antioxidative systems, and induces tissue damage and metabolic changes in crayfish.

Antioxidants in Alzheimer's Disease: Current Therapeutic Significance and Future Prospects

Alzheimer's disease (AD) rate is accelerating with the increasing aging of the world's population. The World Health Organization (WHO) stated AD as a global health priority. According to the WHO report, around 82 million people in 2030 and 152 million in 2050 will develop dementia (AD contributes 60% to 70% of cases), considering the current scenario. AD is the most common neurodegenerative disease, intensifying impairments in cognition, behavior, and memory. Histopathological AD variations include extracellular senile plaques' formation, tangling of intracellular neurofibrils, and synaptic and neuronal loss in the brain. Multiple evidence directly indicates that oxidative stress participates in an early phase of AD before cytopathology. Moreover, oxidative stress is induced by almost all misfolded protein lumps like α-synuclein, amyloid-β, and others. Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in activating and causing various cell signaling pathways that result in lesion formations of toxic substances, which foster the development of the disease. Antioxidants are widely preferred to combat oxidative stress, and those derived from natural sources, which are often incorporated into dietary habits, can play an important role in delaying the onset as well as reducing the progression of AD. However, this approach has not been extensively explored yet. Moreover, there has been growing evidence that a combination of antioxidants in conjugation with a nutrient-rich diet might be more effective in tackling AD pathogenesis. Thus, considering the above-stated fact, this comprehensive review aims to elaborate the basics of AD and antioxidants, including the vitality of antioxidants in AD. Moreover, this review may help researchers to develop effectively and potentially improved antioxidant therapeutic strategies for this disease as it also deals with the clinical trials in the stated field.

Naproxen as a potential candidate for promoting rivastigmine anti-Alzheimer activity against aluminum chloride-prompted Alzheimer's-like disease in rats; neurogenesis and apoptosis modulation as a possible underlying mechanism

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the leading causes of dependence and disability among the elderly worldwide. The traditional anti-Alzheimer medication, rivastigmine, one of the cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs), fails to achieve a definitive cure. We tested the hypothesis that naproxen administration to the rivastigmine-treated aluminum chloride (AlCl3) Alzheimer's rat model could provide an additive neuroprotective effect compared to rivastigmine alone.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The studied groups were control (Cont), AlCl₃ treated (Al), rivastigmine treated (RIVA), naproxen treated (Napro), and combined rivastigmine and naproxen treated (RIVA + Napro). Rats' memory, spatial learning, and cognitive behavior were assessed followed by evaluation of hippocampal acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Hippocampal and cerebellar histopathology were thoroughly examined. Activated caspase-3 and the neuroepithelial stem cells marker; nestin expressions were immunohistochemically assayed.

RESULTS

AD rats displayed significantly impaired memory and cognitive function, augmented hippocampal AChE activity; massive neurodegeneration associated with enhanced astrogliosis, apoptosis, and impaired neurogenesis. Except for the enhancement of neurogenesis and suppression of apoptosis, the combination therapy had no additional neuroprotective benefit over rivastigmine-only therapy.

CONCLUSION

Naproxen's efficacy was established by its ability to function at the cellular level, improved neurogenesis, and decreased, apoptosis without having an additional mitigating impact on cognitive impairment in rivastigmine-treated AD rats.

Protective Effect of Ginkgolide B against Cognitive Impairment in Mice via Regulation of Gut Microbiota

Ginkgolide B (GB) is one of the main bioactive components of Ginkgo biloba leaf extracts with neuroprotective activity. However, the neuroprotective mechanism link between the anti-Alzheimer's disease (AD) efficiency of GB and gut microbiota have remained elusive. Here, we elucidated the effect and possible mechanism of GB against cognitive impairment in mice. Male mice were induced with d-galactose and aluminum chloride to establish an AD animal model, and then intragastrically treated with GB. Cognitive function was assessed by an object recognition test and an open-field test. Amyloid deposition and neuropathological change were detected. The levels of receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), Bcl-2, and Bax were detected. Moreover, microbial compositions were measured by 16s rRNA sequencing. Our results showed that GB significantly alleviated cognitive dysfunction, neurodegeneration, and neuropathological changes in AD model mice. Moreover, GB treatment remarkably reduced the levels of RAGE and Bax and increased the level of Bcl-2 in AD model mice. GB treatment reversed the decreased abundance of Lactobacillus and the increased abundance of Bacteroidales, Muribaculaceae, and Alloprevotella, which led to reconstruction of gut microbiota. These findings demonstrated the neuroprotective effects of GB in AD mice, which were partly mediated by modulating gut dysbiosis, indicating that GB might be a potentially active supplement to alleviate AD.

Coenzyme Q10 a mitochondrial restorer for various brain disorders

Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone or CoQ10) is a lipid molecule that acts as an electron mobile carrier of the electron transport chain and also contains antioxidant properties. Supplementation of CoQ10 has been very useful to treat mitochondrial diseases. CoQ10 along with its synthetic analogue, idebenone, is used largely to treat various neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Friedreich's ataxia and additional brain disease condition like autism, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, depression, and bipolar disorder, which are related to mitochondrial impairment. In this article, we have reviewed numerous physiological functions of CoQ10 and the rationale for its use in clinical practice in different brain disorders.

Chronic Stress and Oxidative Stress as Common Factors of the Pathogenesis of Depression and Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Antioxidants in Prevention and Treatment

There is a growing body of scientific research showing the link between depression and dementia in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The chronic stress contributes to the formation of oxidative stress in the parts of the brain involved in the development of depression and AD. The scientific literature reports the significant role of antioxidants, which are highly effective in treating these diseases. In this review, we have summarized the relationship between chronic stress, oxidative stress, and the changes in the brain they cause occurring in the brain. Among all the compounds showing antioxidant properties, the most promising results in AD treatment were observed for Vitamin E, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), melatonin, polyphenols, curcumin, and selenium. In case of depression treatment, the greatest potential was observed in curcumin, zinc, selenium, vitamin E, and saffron.

Icariin sustains the proliferation and differentiation of Aβ25-35-treated hippocampal neural stem cells via the BDNF-TrkB-ERK/Akt signaling pathway

OBJECTIVES

Icariin (ICA) can be potentially used to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the mechanism was not clear. The current study explored the effects of ICA on hippocampal neural stem cells, aiming to provide a comprehensive basis for its clinical application.

METHODS

Hippocampal neural stem cells were isolated from newborn rats and their differentiation ability was evaluated by performing immunofluorescence staining. Next, Aβ cell model was constructed by treating the cells with Aβ_25-35, and then the model was further treated by ICA or shBDNF or the two in combination. The viability and differentiation of the cells were, respectively, analyzed by 3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide (MTT) and flow cytometry. The expression of BDNF-TrkB-ERK/Akt signaling pathway was assessed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or Western blot (WB).

RESULTS

The hippocampal neural stem cells can differentiate into neurons and astrocytes. ICA effectively promoted the viability and differentiation of Aβ cell models. The expression levels of BDNF and TrkB in Aβ cell models were obviously decreased, which were noticeably increased by ICA. Moreover, BDNF knockdown further inhibited the viability and differentiation of Aβ model cells, which could be reversed by ICA. BDNF knockdown not only suppressed the expressions of BDNF and TrkB in Aβ cell models but also effectively prevented the phosphorylation of ERK/Akt; however, these phenomena were significantly alleviated by ICA treatment.

DISCUSSION

ICA promoted the proliferation and differentiation of Aβ_25-35-treated hippocampal neural stem cells through BDNF-TrkB-ERK/Akt signaling pathway. The current findings might contribute to the treatment of AD.