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Kumar R, Mahmoud MM, Tashkandi HM, Haque S, Harakeh S, Ponnusamy K, Haider S. Combinatorial Network of Transcriptional and miRNA Regulation in Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065356. [PMID: 36982429 PMCID: PMC10048903 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-associated mortality across the worldwide. One of the major challenges in colorectal cancer is the understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of biological molecules. In this study, we aimed to identify novel key molecules in colorectal cancer by using a computational systems biology approach. We constructed the colorectal protein–protein interaction network which followed hierarchical scale-free nature. We identified TP53, CTNBB1, AKT1, EGFR, HRAS, JUN, RHOA, and EGF as bottleneck-hubs. The HRAS showed the largest interacting strength with functional subnetworks, having strong correlation with protein phosphorylation, kinase activity, signal transduction, and apoptotic processes. Furthermore, we constructed the bottleneck-hubs’ regulatory networks with their transcriptional (transcription factor) and post-transcriptional (miRNAs) regulators, which exhibited the important key regulators. We observed miR-429, miR-622, and miR-133b and transcription factors (EZH2, HDAC1, HDAC4, AR, NFKB1, and KLF4) regulates four bottleneck-hubs (TP53, JUN, AKT1 and EGFR) at the motif level. In future, biochemical investigation of the observed key regulators could provide further understanding about their role in the pathophysiology of colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupesh Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, A-10, Sector 62, Noida 201309, India;
| | - Maged Mostafa Mahmoud
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Molecular Genetics and Enzymology Department, Human Genetics and Genome Research Institute, National Research Centre, Cairo 12622, Egypt
| | - Hanaa M. Tashkandi
- Department of General Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shafiul Haque
- Research and Scientific Studies Unit, College of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
- Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut 13-5053, Lebanon
- Centre of Medical and Bio-Allied Health Sciences Research, Ajman University, Ajman P.O. Box 346, United Arab Emirates
| | - Steve Harakeh
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, and Yousef Abdullatif Jameel Chair of Prophetic Medicine Application, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kalaiarasan Ponnusamy
- Biotechnology Division, National Centre for Disease Control, New Delhi 110054, India
- Correspondence: (K.P.); (S.H.)
| | - Shazia Haider
- Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, A-10, Sector 62, Noida 201309, India;
- Correspondence: (K.P.); (S.H.)
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Yang Y, Yuan H, Zhao L, Guo S, Hu S, Tian M, Nie Y, Yu J, Zhou C, Niu J, Wang G, Song Y. Targeting the miR-34a/LRPPRC/MDR1 axis collapse the chemoresistance in P53 inactive colorectal cancer. Cell Death Differ 2022; 29:2177-2189. [PMID: 35484333 PMCID: PMC9613927 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-022-01007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
P53 mutation is an important cause of chemoresistance in colorectal cancer (CRC). The investigation and identification of the downstream targets and underlying molecular mechanism of chemoresistance induced by P53 abnormalities are therefore of great clinical significance. In this study, we demonstrated and reported for the first time that leucine-rich pentatricopeptide repeat-containing protein (LRPPRC) is a key functional downstream factor and therapeutic target for P53 mutation-induced chemoresistance. Due to its RNA binding function, LRPPRC specifically bound to the mRNA of multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1), increasing MDR1 mRNA stability and protein expression. In normal cells, P53 induced by chemotherapy inhibited the expression of LRPPRC via miR-34a and in turn reduced the expression of MDR1. However, chemotherapy-induced P53/miR-34a/LRPPRC/MDR1 signalling pathway activation was lost when P53 was mutated. Additionally, the accumulated LRPPRC and MDR1 promoted drug resistance. Most importantly, gossypol-acetic acid (GAA) was recently reported by our team as the first specific inhibitor of LRPPRC. In CRC cells with P53 mutation, GAA effectively induced degradation of the LRPPRC protein and reduced chemoresistance. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments revealed that combination chemotherapy with GAA and 5-fluorouracil (5FU) yielded improved treatment outcomes. In this study, we reported a novel mechanism and target related to P53-induced drug resistance and provided corresponding interventional strategies for the precision treatment of CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cancer and Microbiome, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
- The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050051, China
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050051, China
| | - Hongyu Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Cancer and Microbiome, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Lianmei Zhao
- Research center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050011, China
| | - Shichao Guo
- Key Laboratory of Cancer and Microbiome, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Sijun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710000, China
| | - Miaomiao Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710000, China
| | - Yongzhan Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710000, China
| | - Jiarui Yu
- Key Laboratory of Cancer and Microbiome, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Chaoxi Zhou
- The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050051, China
| | - Jian Niu
- The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050051, China
| | - Guiying Wang
- The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050051, China.
- Department of General Surgery, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050051, China.
| | - Yongmei Song
- Key Laboratory of Cancer and Microbiome, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China.
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3
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Zhang R, Wu M, Cao T, Luo K, Huang F, Zhang R, Huang Z, Zhou J, Wang Y, Zhu S. Identification of the gossypol derivatives as androgen receptor inhibitor. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2022; 75:128952. [PMID: 36031018 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2022.128952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most frequently diagnosed male malignant tumor and remains the second leading cause of male cancer mortality in western countries. The development of novel antiandrogens to circumvent the drug resistance in anti-PCa treatment is highly demanded. Herein, we identified that gossypol (GOS) specificly inhibited the AR signaling. Further optimization of GOS derivatives led to the discovery of compound XY-32. XY-32 efficiently inhibits AR signaling with the IC50 of 1.23 μM. XY-32 downregulates both the full-length AR and the AR variable splice AR-V7 via suppressing the mRNA expression. It inhibits the proliferation of CRPC cells such as the LNCaP cells, the PC-3 cells, and enzalutamide resistance 22Rv1 cells. The work demonstrates the GOS derivatives represent a novel series of anti-androgen to conquer the acquired AR mutations or AR splice variants induced drug resistance of mCRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, PR China
| | - Meng Wu
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China
| | - Tongxiang Cao
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Engineering of Guangdong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China
| | - Kui Luo
- Singfar Laboratories, Guangzhou 510670, PR China
| | - Fangjiao Huang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, PR China
| | - Ruoying Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, PR China
| | | | - Jinming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Road, Jinhua 321004, PR China.
| | | | - Shifa Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Engineering of Guangdong Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, PR China.
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Townsend PA, Kozhevnikova MV, Cexus ONF, Zamyatnin AA, Soond SM. BH3-mimetics: recent developments in cancer therapy. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2021; 40:355. [PMID: 34753495 PMCID: PMC8576916 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-021-02157-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The hopeful outcomes from 30 years of research in BH3-mimetics have indeed served a number of solid paradigms for targeting intermediates from the apoptosis pathway in a variety of diseased states. Not only have such rational approaches in drug design yielded several key therapeutics, such outputs have also offered insights into the integrated mechanistic aspects of basic and clinical research at the genetics level for the future. In no other area of medical research have the effects of such work been felt, than in cancer research, through targeting the BAX-Bcl-2 protein-protein interactions. With these promising outputs in mind, several mimetics, and their potential therapeutic applications, have also been developed for several other pathological conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and tissue fibrosis, thus highlighting the universal importance of the intrinsic arm of the apoptosis pathway and its input to general tissue homeostasis. Considering such recent developments, and in a field that has generated so much scientific interest, we take stock of how the broadening area of BH3-mimetics has developed and diversified, with a focus on their uses in single and combined cancer treatment regimens and recently explored therapeutic delivery methods that may aid the development of future therapeutics of this nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Townsend
- University of Surrey, Guildford, UK. .,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation. .,University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
| | - Maria V Kozhevnikova
- University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | | | - Andrey A Zamyatnin
- University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation.,Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation.,Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russian Federation
| | - Surinder M Soond
- University of Surrey, Guildford, UK. .,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation.
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5
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Cardoso HJ, Carvalho TMA, Fonseca LRS, Figueira MI, Vaz CV, Socorro S. Revisiting prostate cancer metabolism: From metabolites to disease and therapy. Med Res Rev 2020; 41:1499-1538. [PMID: 33274768 DOI: 10.1002/med.21766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa), one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide, still presents important unmet clinical needs concerning treatment. In the last years, the metabolic reprogramming and the specificities of tumor cells emerged as an exciting field for cancer therapy. The unique features of PCa cells metabolism, and the activation of specific metabolic pathways, propelled the use of metabolic inhibitors for treatment. The present work revises the knowledge of PCa metabolism and the metabolic alterations that underlie the development and progression of the disease. A focus is given to the role of bioenergetic sources, namely, glucose, lipids, and glutamine sustaining PCa cell survival and growth. Moreover, it is described as the action of oncogenes/tumor suppressors and sex steroid hormones in the metabolic reprogramming of PCa. Finally, the status of PCa treatment based on the inhibition of metabolic pathways is presented. Globally, this review updates the landscape of PCa metabolism, highlighting the critical metabolic alterations that could have a clinical and therapeutic interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique J Cardoso
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Tiago M A Carvalho
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Lara R S Fonseca
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Marília I Figueira
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Cátia V Vaz
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Sílvia Socorro
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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6
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Competitive glucose metabolism as a target to boost bladder cancer immunotherapy. Nat Rev Urol 2020; 17:77-106. [PMID: 31953517 DOI: 10.1038/s41585-019-0263-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Bladder cancer - the tenth most frequent cancer worldwide - has a heterogeneous natural history and clinical behaviour. The predominant histological subtype, urothelial bladder carcinoma, is characterized by high recurrence rates, progression and both primary and acquired resistance to platinum-based therapy, which impose a considerable economic burden on health-care systems and have substantial effects on the quality of life and the overall outcomes of patients with bladder cancer. The incidence of urothelial tumours is increasing owing to population growth and ageing, so novel therapeutic options are vital. Based on work by The Cancer Genome Atlas project, which has identified targetable vulnerabilities in bladder cancer, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have arisen as an effective alternative for managing advanced disease. However, although ICIs have shown durable responses in a subset of patients with bladder cancer, the overall response rate is only ~15-25%, which increases the demand for biomarkers of response and therapeutic strategies that can overcome resistance to ICIs. In ICI non-responders, cancer cells use effective mechanisms to evade immune cell antitumour activity; the overlapping Warburg effect machinery of cancer and immune cells is a putative determinant of the immunosuppressive phenotype in bladder cancer. This energetic interplay between tumour and immune cells leads to metabolic competition in the tumour ecosystem, limiting nutrient availability and leading to microenvironmental acidosis, which hinders immune cell function. Thus, molecular hallmarks of cancer cell metabolism are potential therapeutic targets, not only to eliminate malignant cells but also to boost the efficacy of immunotherapy. In this sense, integrating the targeting of tumour metabolism into immunotherapy design seems a rational approach to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ICIs.
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Lim B, Greer Y, Lipkowitz S, Takebe N. Novel Apoptosis-Inducing Agents for the Treatment of Cancer, a New Arsenal in the Toolbox. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11081087. [PMID: 31370269 PMCID: PMC6721450 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11081087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Evasion from apoptosis is an important hallmark of cancer cells. Alterations of apoptosis pathways are especially critical as they confer resistance to conventional anti-cancer therapeutics, e.g., chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted therapeutics. Thus, successful induction of apoptosis using novel therapeutics may be a key strategy for preventing recurrence and metastasis. Inhibitors of anti-apoptotic molecules and enhancers of pro-apoptotic molecules are being actively developed for hematologic malignancies and solid tumors in particular over the last decade. However, due to the complicated apoptosis process caused by a multifaceted connection with cross-talk pathways, protein–protein interaction, and diverse resistance mechanisms, drug development within the category has been extremely challenging. Careful design and development of clinical trials incorporating predictive biomarkers along with novel apoptosis-inducing agents based on rational combination strategies are needed to ensure the successful development of these molecules. Here, we review the landscape of currently available direct apoptosis-targeting agents in clinical development for cancer treatment and update the related biomarker advancement to detect and validate the efficacy of apoptosis-targeted therapies, along with strategies to combine them with other agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bora Lim
- Department of Breast Medical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Yoshimi Greer
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Stanley Lipkowitz
- Women's Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Naoko Takebe
- Early Clinical Trials Development, Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Zhu Q, Pan P, Chen X, Wang Y, Zhang S, Mo J, Li X, Ge RS. Human placental 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/steroid Δ5,4-isomerase 1: Identity, regulation and environmental inhibitors. Toxicology 2019; 425:152253. [PMID: 31351905 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2019.152253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Human placental 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/steroid Δ5, 4-isomerase 1 (HSD3B1), a high-affinity type I enzyme, uses pregnenolone to make progesterone, which is critical for maintenance of pregnancy. HSD3B1 is located in the mitochondrion and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of placental cells and is encoded by HSD3B1 gene. HSD3B1 contains GATA and TEF-5 regulatory elements. Many endocrine disruptors, including phthalates, methoxychlor and its metabolite, organotins, and gossypol directly inhibit placental HSD3B1 thus blocking progesterone production. In this review, we discuss the placental HSD3B1, its gene regulation, biochemistry, subcellular location, and inhibitors from the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiqi Zhu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Peipei Pan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiuxiu Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yiyan Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Song Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jiaying Mo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaoheng Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ren-Shan Ge
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
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Singla N, Ghandour RA, Raj GV. Investigational luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists and other hormonal agents in early stage clinical trials for prostate cancer. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2019; 28:249-259. [PMID: 30649971 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2019.1570130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The treatment and management of prostate cancer continues to evolve; newer classes of agents and combination therapies are being developed and some are being investigated in early phase clinical trials. AREAS COVERED We discuss investigational hormonal agents for the treatment of prostate cancer and focus primarily on luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists in early stage trials. We look at agents that target the hormonal axis, including anti-androgens, gonadotropins, estrogenic agents and progestogenic agents and other non-hormonal agents often used in combination with LHRH agonists. We review these candidates in the specific clinical niche in which they might find utility. EXPERT OPINION Of all candidate compounds being evaluated in clinical trials, very few will receive FDA approval. Few, if any of the investigational agents discussed here will be used routinely in clinical practice for treating prostate cancer. Recognizing the reasons for the failure of agents to advance to later stage trials is important. Furthermore, a thorough understanding of the mechanisms underlying prostate cancer pathogenesis, including various points in the HGPA and parallel pathways, will help identify potentially actionable targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirmish Singla
- a Department of Urology , University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA
| | - Rashed A Ghandour
- a Department of Urology , University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA
| | - Ganesh V Raj
- a Department of Urology , University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas , TX , USA
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Cao S, Wang G, Ge F, Li X, Zhu Q, Ge RS, Wang Y. Gossypol inhibits 5α-reductase 1 and 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: Its possible use for the treatment of prostate cancer. Fitoterapia 2018; 133:102-108. [PMID: 30605780 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2018.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Gossypol is a yellow polyphenol isolated from cotton seeds. It has the antitumor activity and it is being tested to treat prostate cancer. However, its underlying mechanisms are still not well understood. The present study investigated the inhibitory effects of gossypol acetate on rat 5α-reductase 1, 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and retinol dehydrogenase 2 for androgen metabolism. Rat 5α-reductase 1, 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and retinol dehydrogenase 2 were expressed in COS-1 cells. Immature Leydig cells that contain these enzymes were isolated from 35-day-old male Sprague Dawley rats. The potency and mode of action of gossypol acetate to inhibit these enzymes in both enzyme-expressed preparations and immature Leydig cells were examined. Molecular docking study of gossypol on the crystal structure of 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase was performed. Gossypol acetate inhibited 5α-reductase 1 and 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase with IC50 values of 3.33 ± 0.07 and 0.52 ± 0.06 × 10-6 M in the expressed enzymes as well as 8.512 ± 0.079 and 1.032 ± 0.068 × 10-6 M in intact rat immature Leydig cells, respectively. Gossypol acetate inhibited rat 5α-reductase 1 in a noncompetitive mode and 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in a mixed mode when steroid substrates were supplied. Gossypol acetate weakly inhibited retinol dehydrogenase 2 with IC50 value over 1 × 10-4 M. Molecular docking analysis showed that gossypol partially bound to the steroid-binding site of the crystal structure of rat 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Gossypol acetate is a potent inhibitor of rat 5α-reductase 1 and 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, possibly inhibiting the formation of androgen in the prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyan Cao
- Central Laboratory, Jinan Central Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250013, China; Center of Scientific Research, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325027, China
| | - Guimin Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325027, China
| | - Fei Ge
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325027, China
| | - Xiaoheng Li
- Center of Scientific Research, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325027, China
| | - Qiqi Zhu
- Center of Scientific Research, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325027, China
| | - Ren-Shan Ge
- Center of Scientific Research, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325027, China.
| | - Yunshan Wang
- Central Laboratory, Jinan Central Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250013, China.
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11
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION BCL-2 proteins are key players in the balance of cell life and death. Their roles in the development and biology of cancer have been well established and continue to be investigated. Understanding the mechanisms by which these proteins regulate apoptosis has led to the development of small molecule targeted therapies that act to overcome the cell's ability to evade programmed cell death. Areas covered: The biology of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway is reviewed with attention to the varied roles of the anti-apoptotic members of the BCL-2 family. BH3 profiling is reviewed. Historical therapeutic agents are addressed, and currently investigated BH3 mimetics are described with attention to clinical significance. The limitations of BCL-2 family targeted drugs with regard to on-target and off-target toxicities are explored. Agents under development for targeting MCL-1 and other BCL-2 family members are discussed. Expert opinion: ABT-199 (venetoclax) and other BH3 mimetics have entered the clinical arena and show promising results in both hematologic and solid malignancies. Use of agents targeting this system will likely expand, and likely a number of malignant diseases will be successfully targeted resulting in improved treatment responses and patient survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Levy
- a Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center , Penn State Hershey Cancer Institute , Hershey , PA , USA
| | - David F Claxton
- a Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center , Penn State Hershey Cancer Institute , Hershey , PA , USA
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12
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Octreotide in combination with AT-101 induces cytotoxicity and apoptosis through up-regulation of somatostatin receptors 2 and 5 in DU-145 prostate cancer cells. Tumour Biol 2015; 37:4939-44. [PMID: 26531719 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-4331-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common type of cancer among males. Although survival rate of early-stage PCa is high, treatment options are very limited for recurrent disease. In this study, the possible synergistic cytotoxic and apoptotic effect of octreotide in combination with AT-101 was investigated in DU-145 hormone and drug refractory prostate cancer cell line. To enlighten the action mechanisms of the combination treatment, expression levels of somatostatin receptors 2 and 5 (SSTR2 and SSTR5) were also investigated. Cell viability was measured by XTT assay. Apoptosis was assessed through DNA fragmentation analysis and caspase 3/7 assay. mRNA and protein levels of SSTR2 and SSTR5 were evaluated by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. Octreotide in combination with AT-101 inhibited cell viability and induced apoptosis synergistically in DU-145 cells as compared to any agent alone. Combination treatment increased both SSTR2 and SSTR5 mRNA and protein levels in DU-145 cells. The data suggest that this combination therapy may be a good candidate for patients with advanced metastatic PCa do not respond to androgen deprivation.
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Stein MN, Hussain M, Stadler WM, Liu G, Tereshchenko IV, Goodin S, Jeyamohan C, Kaufman HL, Mehnert J, DiPaola RS. A Phase II Study of AT-101 to Overcome Bcl-2--Mediated Resistance to Androgen Deprivation Therapy in Patients With Newly Diagnosed Castration-Sensitive Metastatic Prostate Cancer. Clin Genitourin Cancer 2015; 14:22-7. [PMID: 26476589 DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2015.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED In a phase II multicenter study, men with castration sensitive metastatic prostate cancer were treated with AT-101, a small molecule Bcl-2 inhibitor, and androgen deprivation therapy. At the end of 7 cycles of therapy in 55 patients, an undetectable PSA was achieved in 31%. However, the combination did not meet the pre-specified level of activity for further development. BACKGROUND We conducted a phase II study in men with castration-sensitive metastatic prostate cancer to test the hypothesis that AT-101, a small molecule Bcl-2 inhibitor, has clinical activity in patients initiating androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) for metastatic prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS Patients with metastatic prostate cancer scheduled to start, or who had recently (within 6 weeks) initiated, ADT were enrolled. ADT with a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonist and bicalutamide was started 6 weeks before initiation of oral AT-101, 20 mg/day for 21 days of a 28-day cycle. The primary endpoint of the study was the percentage of patients with an undetectable prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level (≤ 0.2 ng/mL) after 7.5 months (1.5 months of ADT alone plus 6 months of combined ADT and AT-101). To assess for an association between chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 1 (CHD1) and drug sensitivity, fluorescence in situ hybridization with confocal microscopy was assessed in a subgroup of patients. RESULTS A total of 55 patients were enrolled, with median age of 61 years and a median PSA level of 27.6 ng/dL. Of the 55 patients, 72% had a Gleason score ≥ 8. Three patients had visceral metastases, and the remaining patients had bone or nodal metastasis. An undetectable PSA level was achieved in 31% of the patients. Of the 31 patients, 12 experienced serious adverse events, 7 of which were considered related to study therapy. Most of the related adverse events were gastrointestinal and nervous system disorders. CHD1 assessment was feasible, with a nonsignificant association with therapeutic sensitivity in a small number of patients. CONCLUSION The combination of ADT and AT-101 did not meet the prespecified level of activity for further development of this combination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark N Stein
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ
| | | | | | - Glenn Liu
- UW Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
| | | | - Susan Goodin
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ
| | | | | | - Janice Mehnert
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ
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Ren T, Shan J, Qing Y, Qian C, Li Q, Lu G, Li M, Li C, Peng Y, Luo H, Zhang S, Zhang W, Wang D, Zhou SF. Sequential treatment with AT-101 enhances cisplatin chemosensitivity in human non-small cell lung cancer cells through inhibition of apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1-activated IL-6/STAT3 signaling pathway. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2014; 8:2517-29. [PMID: 25548514 PMCID: PMC4271790 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s71432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
AT-101, known as R-(–)-gossypol, is a potent anticancer agent, but its chemosensitizing effects remain elusive. The present study aimed to examine whether AT-101 could increase the sensitivity of non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells to cisplatin (CDDP) and the underlying mechanisms. We evaluated the efficacy of the sequential treatment with AT-101 and CDDP using both in vitro and in vivo models. Our results showed that as compared to AT-101 or CDDP monotherapy, or AT-101 plus CDDP concurrent treatment, the sequential treatment significantly inhibited cell proliferation and migration and induced tumor cell death. Moreover, the efficacy of the sequential treatment was also confirmed in a mouse A549 xenograft model. Our study revealed that AT-101 inhibited the reduced status of apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) and attenuated APE1-mediated IL-6/STAT3 signaling activation by decreasing IL-6 protein expression; suppressing the STAT3–DNA binding; and reducing the expression of the downstream antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. In conclusion, AT-101 enhances the sensitivity of A549 cells to CDDP in vitro and in vivo through the inhibition of APE1-mediated IL-6/STAT3 signaling activation, providing a rationale for the combined use of AT-101 and CDDP in non-small cell lung cancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Ren
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China ; Oncology Department, The Affiliated Hospital, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinlu Shan
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Qing
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengyuan Qian
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Li
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoshou Lu
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengxia Li
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chongyi Li
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Peng
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Luo
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiheng Zhang
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong Wang
- Cancer Center, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Shu-Feng Zhou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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Agarwal N, Hussain M. Management of hormone-sensitive metastatic prostate cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2013; 27:1221-41, viii. [PMID: 24188260 DOI: 10.1016/j.hoc.2013.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Targeting gonadal androgen synthesis (often in conjunction with blockade of androgen receptor) is the cornerstone of treatment of hormone-sensitive metastatic prostate cancer (HSPC). Despite the failure of androgen deprivation therapy, most tumors maintain some dependence on androgen or androgen receptor signaling for proliferation. This article reviews the current standard of care for metastatic HSPC, mechanisms of treatment resistance, novel drugs targeting the androgen signaling pathway, biomarkers predicting response to treatment and survival, future directions, and ongoing clinical trials in HSPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeraj Agarwal
- Division of Medical Oncology, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, 2000 Circle of Hope, Suite 2123, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Hall C, Troutman SM, Price DK, Figg WD, Kang MH. Bcl-2 family of proteins as therapeutic targets in genitourinary neoplasms. Clin Genitourin Cancer 2012; 11:10-9. [PMID: 23083798 DOI: 10.1016/j.clgc.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Overexpression of antiapoptotic B-cell lymphoma (Bcl-2) proteins confers the dysregulation of apoptosis and results in drug resistance in a variety of cancers, including those of the genitourinary tract. Inhibitors that target prosurvival Bcl-2 proteins are in preclinical and clinical development. The objective of this review is to assess the involvement of Bcl-2 proteins as well as the preclinical and clinical activity of Bcl-2 inhibitors under evaluation for genitourinary neoplasms. MATERIALS AND METHODS PubMed was used with both medical subject heading terms and free search to identify the relevant literature. Information on clinical trials was obtained using http://Clincaltrials.gov, EU Clinical Trials Register, and meeting abstracts of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. RESULTS To date, 2 Bcl-2 inhibitors have been evaluated in clinical trials for genitourinary tumors (oblimersen and AT-101 (R-(-)-gossypol)). Both agents demonstrated some success in early stages of development, but their clinical activity did not meet expectations. Preclinical studies are under way for other Bcl-2 inhibitors including ABT-737, HA14-1, and Bcl-2 homology 3 inhibitors. CONCLUSION Antiapoptotic Bcl-2 proteins are potential molecular targets in genitourinary cancers. Bcl-2 inhibitors might be effective as single agents or in combination with conventional therapies. However, the biology of the Bcl-2 family in genitourinary cancers remains poorly understood and robust preclinical studies are needed to inform clinical development. Such studies should aim to identify: (1) pharmacodynamic markers that could help guide patient selection for treatment with Bcl-2 inhibitors, and (2) optimal combinations of Bcl-2 inhibitors with other anticancer agents for future clinical investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor Hall
- Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79416, USA
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Sonpavde G, Matveev V, Burke J, Caton J, Fleming M, Hutson T, Galsky M, Berry W, Karlov P, Holmlund J, Wood B, Brookes M, Leopold L. Randomized phase II trial of docetaxel plus prednisone in combination with placebo or AT-101, an oral small molecule Bcl-2 family antagonist, as first-line therapy for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Ann Oncol 2012; 23:1803-8. [DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdr555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Lin H, Gounder MK, Bertino JR, Kong ANT, DiPaola RS, Stein MN. A validated HPLC assay for the determination of R-(-)-gossypol in human plasma and its application in clinical pharmacokinetic studies. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 66:371-5. [PMID: 22483642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
R-(-)-gossypol acetic acid (AT-101), a natural BH3 mimetic, is investigated in a Phase I/II clinical trial for the treatment of advanced solid tumor malignancies. Gossypol undergoes rapid degradation in solution phase, which causes major technical difficulty for its quantitation in plasma. We developed and validated a sensitive HPLC assay for pharmacokinetic evaluation of gossypol. Acetonitrile deproteinization method was chosen for sample preparation and Schiff's base derivative, R-(-)-gossypol-diamino-propanol (GDP), was used as internal standard. Chromatographic separation of gossypol in plasma was performed using a Zorbax Eclipse XDB column C(18) at 30 °C. The mobile phase consists of 10 mmol/L KH(2)PO(4) (pH 3.0) and acetonitrile (20:80) at 1.0 mL/min flow rate. Linearity ranged over 56-3585 ng/mL (R(2)=0.9997±0.0003, n=4), and the limit of detection was 28 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-assay precision was less than 13.7% and the bias ranged from -7.4 to 7.0%. The method was successfully applied to characterize the pharmacokinetics of AT-101 in a Phase I clinical trial. The validated assay is accurate, and sensitive with minimum loss and rapid analysis time and suitable for quantification of gossypol for pharmacokinetics evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxia Lin
- The Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, 195 Little Albany Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
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Joudeh J, Claxton D. Obatoclax mesylate : pharmacology and potential for therapy of hematological neoplasms. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2012; 21:363-73. [PMID: 22324354 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2012.652302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Augmentation and acceleration of apoptosis for cancer therapy are logical therapeutic strategies given the increasing body of data suggesting the dysregulation of control of cell death in many neoplasms. Apoptosis is particularly well studied in hematological neoplasms, thus these varied diseases present opportunities for pro-apoptotic drug development both as single agents and in combination with established therapies. Accordingly, several agents targeting function of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members have entered clinical trials in the last decade and are discussed. AREAS COVERED The pan Bcl-2 family member BH3 domain mimetic obatoclax (GX15-070) is currently under clinical evaluation in solid tumors and hematological neoplasms. This agent offers the attractive property of uniformly inhibiting all of the anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 protein family. Its chemistry and preclinical development and activity are reviewed. Pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, drug resistance and clinical use of this agent in leukemias and lymphomas are discussed. The prospects for obatoclax in changing clinical practice are addressed. EXPERT OPINION Obatoclax may not prove to have dramatic single agent activity for hematological neoplasms. It seems more likely that its activity will be manifest in combination therapy with other agents, particularly cytotoxic chemotherapies. Results of ongoing studies are awaited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Joudeh
- Department of Medicine, Hematology/Oncology Division, Penn State College of Medicine, 500 University Drive, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
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Ola MS, Nawaz M, Ahsan H. Role of Bcl-2 family proteins and caspases in the regulation of apoptosis. Mol Cell Biochem 2011; 351:41-58. [PMID: 21210296 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-010-0709-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 662] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, plays a pivotal role in the elimination of unwanted, damaged, or infected cells in multicellular organisms and also in diverse biological processes, including development, cell differentiation, and proliferation. Apoptosis is a highly regulated form of cell death, and dysregulation of apoptosis results in pathological conditions including cancer, autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases. The Bcl-2 family proteins are key regulators of apoptosis, which include both anti- and pro-apoptotic proteins, and a slight change in the dynamic balance of these proteins may result either in inhibition or promotion of cell death. Execution of apoptosis by various stimuli is initiated by activating either intrinsic or extrinsic pathways which lead to a series of downstream cascade of events, releasing of various apoptotic mediators from mitochondria and activation of caspases, important for the cell fate. In view of recent research advances about underlying mechanism of apoptosis, this review highlights the basics concept of apoptosis and its regulation by Bcl-2 family of protein. Furthermore, this review discusses the interplay of various apoptotic mediators and caspases to decide the fate of the cell. We expect that this review will add to the pool of basic information necessary to understand the mechanism of apoptosis which may implicate in designing better strategy to develop biomedical therapy to control apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Shamsul Ola
- Department of Ophthalmology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11411, KSA
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