Caveolae May Enable Albumin to Enter Human Renal Glomerular Endothelial Cells

Tracking the cellular uptake and phototoxicity of Ru(ii)-polypyridyl-1,8-naphthalimide Tröger's base conjugates

Ruthenium(ii) complexes are attracting significant research attention as a promising class of photosensitizers (PSs) in photodynamic therapy (PDT). Having previously reported the synthesis of two novel Ru(ii)-polypyridyl-1,8-naphthalimide Tröger's base compounds 1 and 2 with interesting photophysical properties, where the emission from either the Ru(ii) polypyridyl centres or the naphthalimide moieties could be used to monitor binding to nucleic acids, we sought to use these compounds to investigate further and in more detail their biological profiling, which included unravelling their mechanism of cellular uptake, cellular trafficking and cellular responses to photoexcitation. Here we demonstrate that these compounds undergo rapid time dependent uptake in HeLa cells that involved energy dependent, caveolae and lipid raft-dependent mediated endocytosis, as demonstrated by confocal imaging, and transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Following endocytosis, both compounds were shown to localise to mostly lysosomal and Golgi apparatus compartments with some accumulation in mitochondria but no localisation was found to the nucleus. Upon photoactivation, the compounds increased ROS production and induced ROS-dependent apoptotic cell death. The photo-activated compounds subsequently induced DNA damage and altered tubulin, but not actin structures, which was likely to be an indirect effect of ROS production and induced apoptosis. Furthermore, by changing the concentration of the compounds or the laser used to illuminate the cells, the mechanism of cell death could be changed from apoptosis to necrosis. This is the first detailed biological study of Ru(ii)-polypyridyl Tröger's bases and clearly suggests caveolae-dependent endocytosis is responsible for cell uptake - this may also explain the lack of nuclear uptake for these compounds and similar results observed for other Ru(ii)-polypyridyl complexes. These conjugates are potential candidates for further development as PDT agents and may also be useful in mechanistic studies on cell uptake and trafficking.

Overexpression of Plasmalemmal Vesicle-Associated Protein-1 Reflects Glomerular Endothelial Injury in Cases of Proliferative Glomerulonephritis with Monoclonal IgG Deposits

Introduction

Proliferative glomerulonephritis with monoclonal IgG deposits (PGNMID) occasionally presents refractory nephrotic syndrome resulting in poor renal prognosis, but its etiology is not fully elucidated. Given that glomerular endothelial cell (GEC) stress or damage may lead to podocytopathy and subsequent proteinuria, as in thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA), diabetic kidney disease, and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, we investigated the evidence of glomerular endothelial injury by evaluating the expression of plasmalemmal vesicle-associated protein-1 (PV-1), a component of caveolae in the cases of PGNMID.

Methods

We measured the immunofluorescent PV-1 intensities of 23 PGNMID cases and compared with those of primary membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) (n = 5) and IgA nephropathy (IgAN) (n = 54) cases. PV-1 localization was evaluated with Caveolin-1, and CD31 staining, and the ultrastructural analysis was performed using a low-vacuum scanning electron microscope (LVSEM). To check the association of podocyte injury, we also conducted 8-oxoguanine and Wilms tumor 1 (WT1) double stain. We then evaluated PV-1 expression in other glomerulitis and glomerulopathy such as lupus nephritis and minimal change disease.

Results

The intensity of glomerular PV-1 expression in PGNMID is significantly higher than that in the other glomerular diseases, although the intensity is not associated with clinical outcomes such as urinary protein levels or renal prognosis. Immunostaining and LVSEM analysis revealed that glomerular PV-1 expression is localized in GECs in PGNMID. 8-oxoguanine accumulation was detected in WT1-positive podocytes but not in PV-1-expressing GECs, suggesting GEC-derived podocyte injury in PGNMID.

Conclusion

PV-1 overexpression reflects glomerular endothelial injury, which could be associated with podocyte oxidative stress in PGNMID cases.

Newly-established in vitro inner BRB spheroids to elucidate retinal Ang2-linked substance transfer

Conjugation of angiopep-2 (Ang2) with drugs/compounds is known to increase plasma membrane permeability across endothelial barriers. The inner blood-retinal barrier (BRB) regulates retinal drug distribution and is formed by retinal capillary endothelial cells, supported by Müller cells and retinal pericytes. To elucidate the potential of Ang2 conjugation in promoting retinal drug distribution after peripheral administration across the inner BRB, an in vivo administration study and in vitro transport experiments using newly developed multicellular inner BRB spheroids were performed. After intravenous administration of Ang2-linked green fluorescence protein (GFP-Ang2) in mice, GFP-derived signals were observed in the neural retina. In contrast, GFP-derived signals were not observed after intravenous GFP administration, suggesting the promotion of the retinal distribution of substances by Ang2 conjugation. To overcome the limitations of in vitro studies using cells cultured on dishes, inner BRB spheroids were established using conditionally immortalized rat retinal capillary endothelial cells, Müller cells, and retinal pericytes. Immunocytochemistry of marker molecules suggests that the central part of the spheroids is occupied by Müller cells, and encapsulated by retinal pericytes and capillary endothelial cells. Studies on the expression and functions of tight junctions suggest that tight junctions are formed on the surface of the inner BRB spheroids by retinal capillary endothelial cells. The functional expression of drug transporters, such as P-glycoprotein, was observed in the spheroids, implying that the inner side of the spheroids reflects the retinal side of the inner BRB. In the inner BRB spheroids, energy-dependent accumulation of GFP-Ang2 and Ang2-linked 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein (FAM-Ang2) was observed. Moreover, an endocytic inhibition study revealed that clathrin-dependent endocytosis/transcytosis was involved in the transcellular transport of Ang2-conjugated drugs/compounds across the inner BRB. Consequently, it is suggested that the Ang2 linkage is useful for promoting retinal drug distribution via clathrin-dependent transcytosis at the inner BRB.

Angiopoietin2-mediated caveolin1 phosphorylation regulating transcytosis of renal tubular epithelial cell contributes to the occurrence of albuminuria under high glucose exposure

Background

Microlbuminuria is the earliest clinical evidence of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) and contributes to the induction and/or progression of DKD. Previous studies have shown that increased expression of angiopoietin2 (ANGPT2) is correlated with an increase in albuminuria. However, the critical role of ANGPT2 in albuminuria development remains unclear. Some studies have shown the significance of transcytosis in the occurrence of albuminuria, but it is unknown whether it takes place in albumin recycling in renal tubular cells of patients with DKD. Furthermore, the potential mechanism of this association also remains unclear.

Methods

In this study, human renal tubular epithelial cells (HK-2) were cultured with high glucose in a Transwell plate to establish a transcytosis model, while C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally injected with streptozotocin to establish a DKD model. The expression of ANGPT2 and caveolin1 (CAV1) phosphorylation was dectected through immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis.

Results

Transcytosis of albumin in renal tubular epithelial cells was downregulated after high glucose exposure, and increased expression of ANGPT2 and CAV1 phosphorylation both in vivo and in vitro was observed. Inhibition of ANGPT2 and CAV1 independently promoted transcytosis. Furthermore, ANGPT2 downregulation inhibited CAV1 phosphorylation, whereas CAV1 phosphorylation had no effect on the expression of ANGPT2.

Conclusions

ANGPT2 reduces albumin transcytosis across renal tubular epithelial cells under high glucose conditions by activating CAV1 phosphorylation, thus increasing albuminuria in DKD. These findings suggested that ANGPT2 and CAV1 may be promising therapeutic targets for albuminuria in DKD.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-022-03388-6.

Caveolin-1 Regulates Cellular Metabolism: A Potential Therapeutic Target in Kidney Disease

The kidney is an energy-consuming organ, and cellular metabolism plays an indispensable role in kidney-related diseases. Caveolin-1 (Cav-1), a multifunctional membrane protein, is the main component of caveolae on the plasma membrane. Caveolae are represented by tiny invaginations that are abundant on the plasma membrane and that serve as a platform to regulate cellular endocytosis, stress responses, and signal transduction. However, caveolae have received increasing attention as a metabolic platform that mediates the endocytosis of albumin, cholesterol, and glucose, participates in cellular metabolic reprogramming and is involved in the progression of kidney disease. It is worth noting that caveolae mainly depend on Cav-1 to perform the abovementioned cellular functions. Furthermore, the mechanism by which Cav-1 regulates cellular metabolism and participates in the pathophysiology of kidney diseases has not been completely elucidated. In this review, we introduce the structure and function of Cav-1 and its functions in regulating cellular metabolism, autophagy, and oxidative stress, focusing on the relationship between Cav-1 in cellular metabolism and kidney disease; in addition, Cav-1 that serves as a potential therapeutic target for treatment of kidney disease is also described.

Intracellular trafficking pathway of albumin in glomerular epithelial cells

The intracellular trafficking pathway of albumin in podocytes remains controversial. We therefore analysed albumin endocytosis through caveolae, subsequent transcytosis, and exocytosis. In Western blot and immunofluorescence analysis in vitro, methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MBCD) treatment significantly decreased the expression of caveolin-1 and albumin in cultured human podocytes after incubation with albumin; additionally, MBCD interfered with albumin endocytosis through caveolae in the experiment using Transwell plates. In the immunofluorescence analysis, albumin was incubated with cultured human podocytes, and colocalisation analysis with organelles and cytoskeletons in the podocytes showed that albumin particles colocalised with caveolin-1 and Fc-receptor but not clathrin in endocytosis, colocalised with actin cytoskeleton but not microtubules in transcytosis, and colocalised with early endosomes and lysosomes but not proteasome, endoplasmic reticulum, or Golgi apparatus. In the electron microscopic analysis of podocytes in nephrotic syndrome model mice, gold-labelled albumin was shown as endocytosis, transcytosis, and exocytosis with caveolae. These results indicate the intracellular trafficking of albumin through podocytes. Albumin enters through caveolae with the Fc-receptor, moves along actin, and reaches the early endosome, where some of them are sorted for lysosomal degradation, and others are directly transported outside the cells through exocytosis. This intracellular pathway may be a new aetiological hypothesis for albuminuria.

Preeclampsia serum increases CAV1 expression and cell permeability of human renal glomerular endothelial cells via down-regulating miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p, miR-204

INTRODUCTION

To gain insight into mechanisms of preeclampsia (PE)-dependent proteinuria, this study focused on whether preeclampsia serum (PES) could induce hyperpermeability in human renal glomerular endothelial cells (HRGECs) via the miRNAs-Caveolin-1 (CAV-1)-dependent pathway.

METHODS

Bioinformatics approach was used to identify miRNAs targeting CAV1. Normal pregnancy serum (NPS) and severe PES were used to treat HRGECs monolayer to demonstrate if PES could induce the expression of identified miRNAs. A luciferase reporter assay was used to determine whether CAV1 was a direct target of miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p, and miR-204. The relationship between the expression of miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p, miR-204, and CAV1 in HRGECs was determined using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot. The gain-of-function and loss-of-function experiments were performed on HRGECs to investigate the effects of miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p, miR-204 on HRGECs permeability.

RESULTS

We identified that CAV1 3'UTR has putative binding sites for miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p, and miR-204, whereas miR-199a-5p does not appear to be a direct regulator of CAV1. We detected that PE serum downregulated the expression of miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p and miR-204, increased expression of CAV1 and increased cell monolayer permeability in HRGECs. The level of CAV1 and permeability decreased when miR-199b-5p or miR-204, but not miR-199a-5p, were overexpressed.

DISCUSSION

miR-199b-5p and miR-204 may play a role in PES-induced increasing permeability of HRGECs by regulating CAV1 expression.

Preeclampsia serum induces human glomerular vascular endothelial cell hyperpermeability via the HMGB1-Caveolin-1 pathway

To explore new ideas about the pathogeny of preeclampsia (PE) proteinuria, this study focused on whether severe PE serum (PES) could induce high-molecular-weight protein (HMWP) hyperpermeability in glomerular endothelial cells (GEC) via the HMGB1-Caveolin-1 (CAV-1) pathway. Normal pregnancy serum (NPS) and severe PES were used to treat primary human GEC monolayer for 24 h. The CAV-1 inhibitor methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MBCD), the HMGB1 inhibitor glycyrrhizicacid (GA), recombinant HMGB1 (rHMGB1) were also used to treat GEC monolayer that were stimulated by NPS or severe PES. The dynamic permeability of GEC to HMWP was detected by Evans blue-labeled BSA and CAV-1 expression in GEC was analyzed by immunofluorescence staining and Western blotting. We detected HMGB1 expression in placenta and serum in normal pregnancy and severe PE. The results showed that severe PES significantly promoted GEC hyperpermeability and CAV-1 expression. By inhibiting CAV-1 expression, MBCD reversed severe PES-induced GEC monolayer permeability. HMGB1 expression in PE placenta and serum was significantly increased. Compared with that in normal placenta, HMGB1expression was increased in the cytoplasm of syncytiotrophoblast cells in PE placenta. GA decreased the severe PES-induced hyperpermeability and CAV-1 expression in GEC. rHMGB1 induced high expression levels of CAV-1 and HMWP hyperpermeability in GEC. In conclusion, HMGB1 is increased in severe PE patients and induces the expression of CAV-1 in GEC. High expression of CAV-1 in GEC can promote HMWP hyperpermeability, which may contribute to the development of PE proteinuria.

Role of the Protein Corona Derived from Human Plasma in Cellular Interactions between Nanoporous Human Serum Albumin Particles and Endothelial Cells

The presence of a protein corona on various synthetic nanomaterials has been shown to strongly influence how they interact with cells. However, it is unclear if the protein corona also exists on protein particles, and if so, its role in particle-cell interactions. In this study, pure human serum albumin (HSA) particles were fabricated via mesoporous silica particle templating. Our data reveal that various serum proteins adsorbed on the particles, when exposed to human blood plasma, forming a corona. In human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), the corona was shown to decrease particle binding to the cell membrane, increase the residence time of particles in early endosomes, and reduce the amount of internalized particles within the first hours of exposure to particles. These findings reveal important information regarding the mechanisms used by vascular endothelial cells to internalize protein-based particulate materials exposed to blood plasma. The ability to control the cellular recognition of these organic particles is expected to aid the advancement of HSA-based materials for intravenous drug delivery.

Vesicular uptake of macromolecules by human placental amniotic epithelial cells

INTRODUCTION

Studies in animal models have shown that unidirectional vesicular transport of amniotic fluid across the amnion plays a primary role in regulating amniotic fluid volume. Our objective was to explore vesicle type, vesicular uptake and intracellular distribution of vesicles in human amnion cells using high- and super-resolution fluorescence microscopy.

METHODS

Placental amnion was obtained at cesarean section and amnion cells were prepared and cultured. At 20%-50% confluence, the cells were incubated with fluorophore conjugated macromolecules for 1-30 min at 22 °C or 37 °C. Fluorophore labeled macromolecules were selected as markers of receptor-mediated caveolar and clathrin-coated vesicular uptake as well as non-specific endocytosis. After fluorophore treatment, the cells were fixed, imaged and vesicles counted using Imaris^® software.

RESULTS

Vesicular uptake displayed first order saturation kinetics with half saturation times averaging 1.3 min at 37 °C compared to 4.9 min at 22 °C, with non-specific endocytotic uptake being more rapid at both temperatures. There was extensive cell-to-cell variability in uptake rate. Under super-resolution microscopy, the pattern of intracellular spatial distribution was distinct for each macromolecule. Co-localization of fluorescently labeled macromolecules was very low at vesicular dimensions.

CONCLUSIONS

In human placental amnion cells, 1) vesicular uptake of macromolecules is rapid, consistent with the concept that vesicular transcytosis across the amnion plays a role in the regulation of amniotic fluid volume; 2) uptake is temperature dependent and variable among individual cells; 3) the unique intracellular distributions suggest distinct functions for each vesicle type; 4) non-receptor mediated vesicular uptake may be a primary vesicular uptake mechanism.

Caveolin-1 in the Pathogenesis of Diabetic Nephropathy: Potential Therapeutic Target?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Diabetic nephropathy, a major microvascular complication of diabetes and the most common cause of end-stage renal disease, is characterized by prominent accumulation of extracellular matrix. The membrane microdomains caveolae, and their integral protein caveolin-1, play critical roles in the regulation of signal transduction. In this review we discuss current knowledge of the contribution of caveolin-1/caveolae to profibrotic signaling and the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease, and assess its potential as a therapeutic target.

RECENT FINDINGS

Caveolin (cav)-1 is key to facilitating profibrotic signal transduction induced by several stimuli known to be pathogenic in diabetic nephropathy, including the most prominent factors hyperglycemia and angiotensin II. Phosphorylation of cav-1 on Y14 is an important regulator of these responses. In vivo studies support a pathogenic role for caveolae in the progression of diabetic nephropathy. Targeting caveolin-1/caveolae would enable inhibition of multiple profibrotic pathways, representing a novel and potentially potent therapeutic option for diabetic nephropathy.

Direct interaction of human serum proteins with AAV virions to enhance AAV transduction: immediate impact on clinical applications

Recent hemophilia B clinical trials using adeno-associated virus (AAV) gene delivery have demonstrated much lower FIX production in patients compared to the high levels observed in animal models and AAV capsid specific CTLs response elicited at high doses of AAV vectors. These results emphasize the necessity to explore effective approaches for enhancement of AAV transduction. Initially, we found that incubation of all AAV vectors with human serum enhanced AAV transduction. Complementary analytical experiments demonstrated that human serum albumin (HSA) directly interacted with the AAV capsid and augmented AAV transduction. The enhanced transduction was observed with clinical grade HSA. Mechanistic studies suggest that HSA increases AAV binding to target cells and that the interaction of HSA with AAV doesn’t interfere with the AAV infection pathway. Importantly, HSA incubation during vector dialysis also increased transduction. Finally, HSA enhancement of AAV transduction in a model of hemophilia B displayed greater than a 5-fold increase in vector derived circulating FIX, which improved the bleeding phenotype correction. In conclusion, incubation of HSA with AAV vectors supports a universal augmentation of AAV transduction and more importantly, this approach can be immediately transitioned to the clinic for the treatment of hemophilia and other diseases.