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Rajan K, Alangode A, Menon JC, Raveendran D, Nair SS, Reick M, Nair BG, Reick M, Vanuopadath M. Comparative functional characterization and in vitro immunological cross-reactivity studies on Daboia russelii and Craspedocephalus malabaricus venom. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2024:trae038. [PMID: 38860309 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trae038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Snake venom is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic constituents, including proteins and peptides. Several studies showed that antivenom efficacy differs due to intra- and inter-species venom variation. METHODS In the current study, comparative functional characterization of major enzymatic proteins present in Craspedocephalus malabaricus and Daboia russelii venom was investigated through various in vitro and immunological cross-reactivity assays. RESULTS The enzymatic assays revealed that hyaluronidase and phospholipase A2 activities were markedly higher in D. russelii. By contrast, fibrinogenolytic, fibrin clotting and L-amino acid oxidase activities were higher in C. malabaricus venom. ELISA results suggested that all the antivenoms had lower binding potential towards C. malabaricus venom. For D. russelii venom, the endpoint titration value was observed at 1:72 900 for all the antivenoms. In the case of C. malabaricus venom, the endpoint titration value was 1:2700, except for Biological E (1:8100). All these results, along with the avidity assays, indicate the strength of venom-antivenom interactions. Similarly, the western blot results suggest that all the antivenoms showed varied efficacies in binding and detecting the venom antigenic epitopes in both species. CONCLUSIONS The results highlight the need for species-specific antivenom to better manage snakebite victims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthika Rajan
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
| | - Aswathy Alangode
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
| | - Jaideep C Menon
- Preventive Cardiology & Population Health Sciences, Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi 682 041 , Kerala, India
| | - Dileepkumar Raveendran
- Indriyam Biologics Pvt. Ltd, SCTIMST-TIMED, 5th Floor. M S Valiathan Building, BMT Wing - Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695 012, Kerala, India
| | - Sudarslal Sadasivan Nair
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
| | - Margaret Reick
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
| | - Bipin Gopalakrishnan Nair
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
| | - Martin Reick
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
| | - Muralidharan Vanuopadath
- School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana P.O , Kollam 690 525, Kerala, India
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Kowalski K, Marciniak P, Rychlik L. A new, widespread venomous mammal species: hemolytic activity of Sorex araneus venom is similar to that of Neomys fodiens venom. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2022; 8:7. [PMID: 35672837 PMCID: PMC9172195 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-022-00191-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Venom production has evolved independently many times in the animal kingdom, although it is rare among mammals. Venomous shrews produce toxins in their salivary glands and use their venoms to hunt and store prey. Thus far, the toxicity and composition of shrew venoms have been studied only in two shrew species: the northern short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda, and the Eurasian water shrew, Neomys fodiens. Venom of N. fodiens has potent paralytic activity which enables hunting and storing prey in a comatose state. Here, we assayed the hemolytic effects of extracts from salivary glands of N. fodiens and the common shrew, Sorex araneus, in erythrocytes of Pelophylax sp. frogs. We identified toxins in shrew venom by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS Our results prove, confirming a suggestion made four centuries ago, that S. araneus is venomous. We also provide the first experimental evidence that shrew venoms produce potent hemolysis in frog erythrocytes. We found significant concentration-dependent effects of venoms of N. fodiens and S. araneus on hemolysis of red blood cells evaluated as hemoglobin release. Treatment of erythrocytes with N. fodiens venom at concentrations of 1.0 and 0.5 mg/ml and with S. araneus venom at concentration of 1.0 mg/ml caused an increased release of hemoglobin. Our findings confirm that hemolytic effects of N. fodiens venom are stronger than those produced by S. araneus venom. We identified four toxins in the venom of N. fodiens: proenkephalin, phospholipase A2 (PLA2), a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein (ADAM) and lysozyme C, as well as a non-toxic hyaluronidase. In the venom of S. araneus we found five toxins: proenkephalin, kallikrein 1-related peptidase, beta-defensin, ADAM and lysozyme C. PLA2 and ADAMs are likely to produce hemolysis in frog erythrocytes. CONCLUSIONS Our results clearly show that shrew venoms possess hemolytic action that may allow them to hunt larger prey. Since a member of the numerous genus Sorex is venomous, it is likely that venom production among shrews and other eulipotyphlans may be more widespread than it has previously been assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Kowalski
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology and Ecology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Paweł Marciniak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Developmental Biology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Leszek Rychlik
- Department of Systematic Zoology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
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Thakur S, Malhotra A, Giri S, Lalremsenga HT, Bharti OK, Santra V, Martin G, Doley R. Venom of several Indian green pit vipers: Comparison of biochemical activities and cross-reactivity with antivenoms. Toxicon 2022; 210:66-77. [PMID: 35217025 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Green pit vipers, a name that can refer to several unrelated species, comprise a large group of venomous snakes found across the humid areas of tropical and sub-tropical Asia, and are responsible for most of the bite cases across this region. In India, green pit vipers belonging to several genera are prevalent in the northern and north-eastern hilly region, unrelated to species present in the peninsular region. In the present study, crude venom of representative species of green pit vipers present in the north and north-eastern hilly region of India (Trimeresurus erythrurus, T. septentrionalis, Viridovipera medoensis, and Popiea popieorum) were characterized to elucidate venom composition and venom variation. Profiling of crude venoms using SDS-PAGE and RP-HPLC methods revealed quantitative differences among the species. Further, in vitro biochemical assays reveal variable levels of phospholipase activity, coagulation activity, thrombin-like activity, fibrinogenolytic and haemolytic activity. This correlates with the pseudo-procoagulant effects on the haemostatic system of victims, which causes consumptive coagulopathy, frequently observed in patients bitten by green pit vipers. The immunoreactivity of Indian polyvalent antivenom and Thai green pit viper antivenom towards crude venoms were also evaluated by western blotting and inhibition of biochemical activities. The results exhibited poor efficacy of Indian polyvalent antivenom in neutralizing the venom toxins of crude venoms; however, Thai green pit viper antivenin (raised against the venom of Trimeresurus allbolabris, not present in India) showed higher immunoreactivity towards congeneric venoms tested. Analysis of green pit viper bite patients records from a community health centre in Assam, India, further revealed the inability of Indian polyvalent antivenom to reverse the extended coagulopathy featured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Thakur
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Assam, 784028, India
| | - Anita Malhotra
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, Gwynedd, UK
| | - Surajit Giri
- Demow Government Community Health Centre, Raichai, KonwarDihingia Gaon, Sivasagar, Assam, India
| | - H T Lalremsenga
- Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, 796004, Mizoram, India
| | - Omesh K Bharti
- State Institute of Health & Family Welfare Parimahal, Shimla, HP, India
| | - Vishal Santra
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul, Hooghly, West Bengal, 712407, India; Captive and Field Herpetology, 13 Hirfron, Anglesey, LL65 1YU, Wales, UK
| | - Gerard Martin
- The Liana Trust, Survey #1418/1419, Rathnapuri, Hunsur, Karnataka, India
| | - Robin Doley
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Assam, 784028, India.
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Vanuopadath M, Shaji SK, Raveendran D, Nair BG, Nair SS. Delineating the venom toxin arsenal of Malabar pit viper (Trimeresurus malabaricus) from the Western Ghats of India and evaluating its immunological cross-reactivity and in vitro cytotoxicity. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 148:1029-1045. [PMID: 31982532 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.01.226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The venom protein components of Malabar pit viper (Trimeresurus malabaricus) were identified by combining SDS-PAGE and ion-exchange chromatography pre-fractionation techniques with LC-MS/MS incorporating Novor and PEAKS-assisted de novo sequencing strategies. Total 97 proteins that belong to 16 protein families such as L-amino acid oxidase, metalloprotease, serine protease, phospholipase A2, 5'-nucleotidase, C-type lectins/snaclecs and disintegrin were recognized from the venom of a single exemplar species. Of the 97 proteins, eighteen were identified through de novo approaches. Immunological cross-reactivity assessed through ELISA and western blot indicate that the Indian antivenoms binds less effectively to Malabar pit viper venom components compared to that of Russell's viper venom. The in vitro cell viability assays suggest that compared to the normal cells, MPV venom induces concentration dependent cell death in various cancer cells. Moreover, crude venom resulted in chromatin condensation and apoptotic bodies implying the induction of apoptosis. Taken together, the present study enabled in dissecting the venom proteome of Trimeresurus malabaricus and revealed the immuno-cross-reactivity profiles of commercially available Indian polyvalent antivenoms that, in turn, is expected to provide valuable insights on the need in improving antivenom preparations against its bite.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dileepkumar Raveendran
- Indriyam Biologics Pvt. Ltd., SCTIMST-TIMed, BMT Wing-Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695 012, Kerala, India
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Venomics and Cellular Toxicity of Thai Pit Vipers (Trimeresurus macrops and T. hageni). Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12010054. [PMID: 31963345 PMCID: PMC7020458 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12010054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The two venomous pit vipers, Trimeresurus macrops and T. hageni, are distributed throughout Thailand, although their abundance varies among different areas. No species-specific antivenom is available for their bite victims, and the only recorded treatment method is a horse antivenom raised against T. albolabris crude venom. To facilitate assessment of the cross-reactivity of heterologous antivenoms, protein profiles of T. macrops and T. hageni venoms were explored using mass-spectrometry-based proteomics. The results show that 185 and 216 proteins were identified from T. macrops and T. hageni venoms, respectively. Two major protein components in T. macrops and T. hageni venoms were snake venom serine protease and metalloproteinase. The toxicity of the venoms on human monocytes and skin fibroblasts was analyzed, and both showed a greater cytotoxic effect on fibroblasts than monocytic cells, with toxicity occurring in a dose-dependent rather than a time-dependent manner. Exploring the protein composition of snake venom leads to a better understanding of the envenoming of prey. Moreover, knowledge of pit viper venomics facilitates the selection of the optimum heterologous antivenoms for treating bite victims.
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Fuchs J, Bessire K, Weiler S. A confirmed bite by a Beautiful Pit Viper (Trimeresurus venustus) resulting in local symptoms. Toxicon 2019; 163:44-47. [PMID: 30902684 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This case report describes the effect of an envenomation by the Beautiful Pit Viper Trimeresurus venustus (or Cryptelytrops venustus), which is a green pit viper native to Thailand and Malaysia. A previously healthy 60-year-old snake breeder with no relevant medical history was bitten by his adult T. venustus in the third finger of his right hand while taking it out of the feeding box. The bite was painful and swelling progressed to include his whole hand within an hour after the bite. He was treated symptomatically with pre-emptive antibiotics and analgesics, never developed any hematological disorders such as coagulopathy and bleeding or disseminated intravascular coagulation and was discharged 26 hours after the bite. The clinical course in our patient matched two other well-documented cases reported to our Poisons Centre, and one further case presented as a conference-poster. All patients recovered with symptomatic therapy and never required antivenom. Therefore, bites by T. venustus seem to present with less severe symptoms compared to other Trimeresurus species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joan Fuchs
- National Poisons Information Centre, Tox Info Suisse, Associated Institute of the University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Karin Bessire
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Department of Emergency Medicine, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Weiler
- National Poisons Information Centre, Tox Info Suisse, Associated Institute of the University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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