1
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Xia K, Liu X, Wee J. Persistent Homology for RNA Data Analysis. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2627:211-229. [PMID: 36959450 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2974-1_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
Molecular representations are of great importance for machine learning models in RNA data analysis. Essentially, efficient molecular descriptors or fingerprints that characterize the intrinsic structural and interactional information of RNAs can significantly boost the performance of all learning modeling. In this paper, we introduce two persistent models, including persistent homology and persistent spectral, for RNA structure and interaction representations and their applications in RNA data analysis. Different from traditional geometric and graph representations, persistent homology is built on simplicial complex, which is a generalization of graph models to higher-dimensional situations. Hypergraph is a further generalization of simplicial complexes and hypergraph-based embedded persistent homology has been proposed recently. Moreover, persistent spectral models, which combine filtration process with spectral models, including spectral graph, spectral simplicial complex, and spectral hypergraph, are proposed for molecular representation. The persistent attributes for RNAs can be obtained from these two persistent models and further combined with machine learning models for RNA structure, flexibility, dynamics, and function analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelin Xia
- Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Xiang Liu
- Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Chern Institute of Mathematics and LPMC, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - JunJie Wee
- Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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2
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Enireddy V, Karthikeyan C, Babu DV. OneHotEncoding and LSTM-based deep learning models for protein secondary structure prediction. Soft comput 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00500-022-06783-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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3
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Carugo O. Uses and Abuses of the Atomic Displacement Parameters in Structural Biology. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2449:281-298. [PMID: 35507268 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2095-3_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
B-factors determined with X-ray crystallographic analyses are commonly used to estimate the flexibility degree of atoms, residues, and molecular moieties in biological macromolecules. In this chapter, the most recent studies and applications of B-factors in protein engineering and structural biology are briefly summarized. Particular emphasis is given to the limitations in using B-factors, in order to prevent inappropriate applications. It is eventually predicted that future applications will involve anisotropically refined B-factors, deep learning, and data produced by cryo-EM.
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4
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Wei H, Wang B, Yang J, Gao J. RNA Flexibility Prediction With Sequence Profile and Predicted Solvent Accessibility. IEEE/ACM TRANSACTIONS ON COMPUTATIONAL BIOLOGY AND BIOINFORMATICS 2021; 18:2017-2022. [PMID: 31794403 DOI: 10.1109/tcbb.2019.2956496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Structural flexibility plays an essential role in many biological processes. B-factor is an important indicator to measure the flexibility of protein or RNA structures. Many methods were developed to predict protein B-factors, but few studies have been done for RNA B-factor prediction. In this paper, we proposed a new method RNAbval to predict RNA B-factors using random forest. The method was developed using a comprehensive set of features, including the sequence profile and predicted solvent accessibility. RNAbval achieved an improvement of 9.2-20.5 percent over the state-of-the-art method on two benchmark test datasets. The proposed method is available at http://yanglab.nankai.edu.cn/RNAbval/.
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5
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Zhang T, Singh J, Litfin T, Zhan J, Paliwal K, Zhou Y. RNAcmap: A Fully Automatic Pipeline for Predicting Contact Maps of RNAs by Evolutionary Coupling Analysis. Bioinformatics 2021; 37:3494-3500. [PMID: 34021744 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btab391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION The accuracy of RNA secondary and tertiary structure prediction can be significantly improved by using structural restraints derived from evolutionary coupling or direct coupling analysis. Currently, these coupling analyses relied on manually curated multiple sequence alignments collected in the Rfam database, which contains 3016 families. By comparison, millions of non-coding RNA sequences are known. Here, we established RNAcmap, a fully automatic pipeline that enables evolutionary coupling analysis for any RNA sequences. The homology search was based on the covariance model built by INFERNAL according to two secondary structure predictors: a folding-based algorithm RNAfold and the latest deep-learning method SPOT-RNA. RESULTS We showed that the performance of RNAcmap is less dependent on the specific evolutionary coupling tool but is more dependent on the accuracy of secondary structure predictor with the best performance given by RNAcmap (SPOT-RNA). The performance of RNAcmap (SPOT-RNA) is comparable to that based on Rfam-supplied alignment and consistent for those sequences that are not in Rfam collections. Further improvement can be made with a simple meta predictor RNAcmap (SPOT-RNA/RNAfold) depending on which secondary structure predictor can find more homologous sequences. Reliable base-pairing information generated from RNAcmap, for RNAs with high effective homologous sequences, in particular, will be useful for aiding RNA structure prediction. AVAILABILITY RNAcmap is available as a web server at https://sparks-lab.org/server/rnacmap/ and as a standalone application along with the datasets at https://github.com/sparks-lab-org/RNAcmap_standalone. A platform independent and fully configured docker image of RNAcmap is also provided at https://hub.docker.com/r/jaswindersingh2/rnacmap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongchuan Zhang
- Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Dr. Southport, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Jaswinder Singh
- Signal Processing Laboratory, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Thomas Litfin
- Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Dr. Southport, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Jian Zhan
- Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Dr. Southport, QLD 4222, Australia
| | - Kuldip Paliwal
- Signal Processing Laboratory, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Yaoqi Zhou
- Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Dr. Southport, QLD 4222, Australia.,Institute for Systems and Physical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518055, China
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6
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Pun CS, Yong BYS, Xia K. Weighted-persistent-homology-based machine learning for RNA flexibility analysis. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0237747. [PMID: 32822369 PMCID: PMC7446851 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
With the great significance of biomolecular flexibility in biomolecular dynamics and functional analysis, various experimental and theoretical models are developed. Experimentally, Debye-Waller factor, also known as B-factor, measures atomic mean-square displacement and is usually considered as an important measurement for flexibility. Theoretically, elastic network models, Gaussian network model, flexibility-rigidity model, and other computational models have been proposed for flexibility analysis by shedding light on the biomolecular inner topological structures. Recently, a topology-based machine learning model has been proposed. By using the features from persistent homology, this model achieves a remarkable high Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) in protein B-factor prediction. Motivated by its success, we propose weighted-persistent-homology (WPH)-based machine learning (WPHML) models for RNA flexibility analysis. Our WPH is a newly-proposed model, which incorporate physical, chemical and biological information into topological measurements using a weight function. In particular, we use local persistent homology (LPH) to focus on the topological information of local regions. Our WPHML model is validated on a well-established RNA dataset, and numerical experiments show that our model can achieve a PCC of up to 0.5822. The comparison with the previous sequence-information-based learning models shows that a consistent improvement in performance by at least 10% is achieved in our current model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Seng Pun
- Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- * E-mail: (CSP); (KX)
| | - Brandon Yung Sin Yong
- Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kelin Xia
- Division of Mathematical Sciences, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- * E-mail: (CSP); (KX)
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7
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Song J, Wang Y, Li F, Akutsu T, Rawlings ND, Webb GI, Chou KC. iProt-Sub: a comprehensive package for accurately mapping and predicting protease-specific substrates and cleavage sites. Brief Bioinform 2020; 20:638-658. [PMID: 29897410 PMCID: PMC6556904 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bby028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Regulation of proteolysis plays a critical role in a myriad of important cellular processes. The key to better understanding the mechanisms that control this process is to identify the specific substrates that each protease targets. To address this, we have developed iProt-Sub, a powerful bioinformatics tool for the accurate prediction of protease-specific substrates and their cleavage sites. Importantly, iProt-Sub represents a significantly advanced version of its successful predecessor, PROSPER. It provides optimized cleavage site prediction models with better prediction performance and coverage for more species-specific proteases (4 major protease families and 38 different proteases). iProt-Sub integrates heterogeneous sequence and structural features and uses a two-step feature selection procedure to further remove redundant and irrelevant features in an effort to improve the cleavage site prediction accuracy. Features used by iProt-Sub are encoded by 11 different sequence encoding schemes, including local amino acid sequence profile, secondary structure, solvent accessibility and native disorder, which will allow a more accurate representation of the protease specificity of approximately 38 proteases and training of the prediction models. Benchmarking experiments using cross-validation and independent tests showed that iProt-Sub is able to achieve a better performance than several existing generic tools. We anticipate that iProt-Sub will be a powerful tool for proteome-wide prediction of protease-specific substrates and their cleavage sites, and will facilitate hypothesis-driven functional interrogation of protease-specific substrate cleavage and proteolytic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangning Song
- Monash Centre for Data Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia.,Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Yanan Wang
- Institute of Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and Key Laboratory of System Control and Information Processing, Ministry of Education of China, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Fuyi Li
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Tatsuya Akutsu
- Bioinformatics Center, Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan
| | - Neil D Rawlings
- EMBL European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Geoffrey I Webb
- Monash Centre for Data Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Kuo-Chen Chou
- Gordon Life Science Institute, Boston, MA 02478, USA and Center for Informational Biology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, China
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8
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Feng H, Gao W, Su L, Liu Y, Sun Z, Chen L. Evolution of diffusion and structure of six n-alkanes in carbon dioxide at infinite dilution over wide temperature and pressure ranges: a molecular dynamics study. J Mol Model 2019; 25:370. [PMID: 31792615 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-019-4229-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Over wide temperature and pressure ranges, the molecular dynamics simulation is performed to study the mass transfer of six n-alkanes from n-C5H12 to n-C10H22 in CO2 at infinite dilution by calculating the diffusion coefficients, which have not yet been measured by experiment. Meanwhile, the structural properties of these systems are explored. It is found that under different temperature and pressure conditions, the variation trends of the radial distribution functions of n-alkanes are quite different, while the variation trends of the average coordination number of n-alkanes can be divided into three types. The radius of gyration and the solvent accessible surface area are both affected by temperature and carbon chain length, but their variation trends are different, and it could explain the abnormal variation trends of the radial distribution functions and the average coordination number. Graphical abstract Over wide temperature and pressure ranges, the variation trends of the average coordination number of n-alkanes can be divided into three types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huajie Feng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, 571158, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Su
- Hainan Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine Technology Center, Haikou, 570311, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanchun Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, 571158, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenfan Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou, 571158, People's Republic of China
| | - Liuping Chen
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, People's Republic of China.
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9
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Singh J, Hanson J, Paliwal K, Zhou Y. RNA secondary structure prediction using an ensemble of two-dimensional deep neural networks and transfer learning. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5407. [PMID: 31776342 PMCID: PMC6881452 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13395-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of our human genome transcribes into noncoding RNAs with unknown structures and functions. Obtaining functional clues for noncoding RNAs requires accurate base-pairing or secondary-structure prediction. However, the performance of such predictions by current folding-based algorithms has been stagnated for more than a decade. Here, we propose the use of deep contextual learning for base-pair prediction including those noncanonical and non-nested (pseudoknot) base pairs stabilized by tertiary interactions. Since only [Formula: see text]250 nonredundant, high-resolution RNA structures are available for model training, we utilize transfer learning from a model initially trained with a recent high-quality bpRNA dataset of [Formula: see text]10,000 nonredundant RNAs made available through comparative analysis. The resulting method achieves large, statistically significant improvement in predicting all base pairs, noncanonical and non-nested base pairs in particular. The proposed method (SPOT-RNA), with a freely available server and standalone software, should be useful for improving RNA structure modeling, sequence alignment, and functional annotations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaswinder Singh
- Signal Processing Laboratory, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Jack Hanson
- Signal Processing Laboratory, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Kuldip Paliwal
- Signal Processing Laboratory, School of Engineering and Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia.
| | - Yaoqi Zhou
- Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Parklands Dr., Southport, QLD, 4222, Australia.
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10
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Zhou B, Yang Y, Zhan J, Dou X, Wang J, Zhou Y. Predicting functional long non-coding RNAs validated by low throughput experiments. RNA Biol 2019; 16:1555-1564. [PMID: 31345106 PMCID: PMC6779387 DOI: 10.1080/15476286.2019.1644590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
High-throughput techniques have uncovered hundreds and thousands of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Among them, only a tiny fraction has experimentally validated functions (EVlncRNAs) by low-throughput methods. What fraction of lncRNAs from high-throughput experiments (HTlncRNAs) is truly functional is an active subject of debate. Here, we developed the first method to distinguish EVlncRNAs from HTlncRNAs and mRNAs by using Support Vector Machines and found that EVlncRNAs can be well separated from HTlncRNAs and mRNAs with 0.6 for Matthews correlation coefficient, 64% for sensitivity, and 81% for precision for the independent human test set. The most useful features for classification are related to sequence conservations at RNA (for separating from HTlncRNAs) and protein (for separating from mRNA) levels. The method is found to be robust as the human-RNA-trained model is applicable to independent mouse RNAs with similar accuracy and to a lesser extent to plant RNAs. The method can recover newly discovered EVlncRNAs with high sensitivity. Its application to randomly selected 2000 human HTlncRNAs indicates that the majority of HTlncRNAs is probably non-functional but a large portion (nearly 30%) are likely functional. In other words, there is an ample number of lncRNAs whose specific biological roles are yet to be discovered. The method developed here is expected to speed up and reduce the cost of the discovery by prioritizing potentially functional lncRNAs prior to experimental validation. EVlncRNA-pred is available as a web server at http://biophy.dzu.edu.cn/lncrnapred/index.html . All datasets used in this study can be obtained from the same website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bailing Zhou
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China.,College of Physics and Electronic Information, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China
| | - Yuedong Yang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China.,School of Data and Computer Science, Sun Yat-sen University , Guangzhou , China.,Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University , Gold Coast , QLD , Australia
| | - Jian Zhan
- Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University , Gold Coast , QLD , Australia
| | - Xianghua Dou
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China.,College of Physics and Electronic Information, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China
| | - Jihua Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China.,College of Physics and Electronic Information, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China
| | - Yaoqi Zhou
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biophysics, Institute of Biophysics, Dezhou University , Dezhou , China.,Institute for Glycomics and School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University , Gold Coast , QLD , Australia
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11
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Flot M, Mishra A, Kuchi AS, Hoque MT. StackSSSPred: A Stacking-Based Prediction of Supersecondary Structure from Sequence. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1958:101-122. [PMID: 30945215 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9161-7_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Supersecondary structure (SSS) refers to specific geometric arrangements of several secondary structure (SS) elements that are connected by loops. The SSS can provide useful information about the spatial structure and function of a protein. As such, the SSS is a bridge between the secondary structure and tertiary structure. In this chapter, we propose a stacking-based machine learning method for the prediction of two types of SSSs, namely, β-hairpins and β-α-β, from the protein sequence based on comprehensive feature encoding. To encode protein residues, we utilize key features such as solvent accessibility, conservation profile, half surface exposure, torsion angle fluctuation, disorder probabilities, and more. The usefulness of the proposed approach is assessed using a widely used threefold cross-validation technique. The obtained empirical result shows that the proposed approach is useful and prediction can be improved further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Flot
- Department of Computer Science, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Avdesh Mishra
- Department of Computer Science, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Aditi Sharma Kuchi
- Department of Computer Science, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Md Tamjidul Hoque
- Department of Computer Science, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA.
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12
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Song J, Wang Y, Li F, Akutsu T, Rawlings ND, Webb GI, Chou KC. iProt-Sub: a comprehensive package for accurately mapping and predicting protease-specific substrates and cleavage sites. Brief Bioinform 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/bib/bby028 epub ahead of print].] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jiangning Song
- Monash Centre for Data Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia and ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Yanan Wang
- Institute of Image Processing and Pattern Recognition, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and Key Laboratory of System Control and Information Processing, Ministry of Education of China, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Fuyi Li
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Tatsuya Akutsu
- Bioinformatics Center, Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan
| | - Neil D Rawlings
- EMBL European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SD, UK
| | - Geoffrey I Webb
- Monash Centre for Data Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Kuo-Chen Chou
- Gordon Life Science Institute, Boston, MA 02478, USA and Center for Informational Biology, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, China
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