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Choudhary V, Choudhary M, Bollag WB. Exploring Skin Wound Healing Models and the Impact of Natural Lipids on the Healing Process. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3790. [PMID: 38612601 PMCID: PMC11011291 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous wound healing is a complex biological process involving a series of well-coordinated events aimed at restoring skin integrity and function. Various experimental models have been developed to study the mechanisms underlying skin wound repair and to evaluate potential therapeutic interventions. This review explores the diverse array of skin wound healing models utilized in research, ranging from rodent excisional wounds to advanced tissue engineering constructs and microfluidic platforms. More importantly, the influence of lipids on the wound healing process is examined, emphasizing their role in enhancing barrier function restoration, modulating inflammation, promoting cell proliferation, and promoting remodeling. Lipids, such as phospholipids, sphingolipids, and ceramides, play crucial roles in membrane structure, cell signaling, and tissue repair. Understanding the interplay between lipids and the wound microenvironment provides valuable insights into the development of novel therapeutic strategies for promoting efficient wound healing and tissue regeneration. This review highlights the significance of investigating skin wound healing models and elucidating the intricate involvement of lipids in the healing process, offering potential avenues for improving clinical outcomes in wound management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Choudhary
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (V.C.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA
| | - Mrunal Choudhary
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (V.C.)
| | - Wendy B. Bollag
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (V.C.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30904, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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Chen Y, Liu X, Yuan J, Dong S, Nie M, Jiang W, Wu D, Liu M, Liu T, Wu C, Gao C, Zhang J, Jiang R. Vitamin D accelerates the subdural hematoma clearance through improving the meningeal lymphatic vessel function. Mol Cell Biochem 2024:10.1007/s11010-023-04918-6. [PMID: 38294731 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-023-04918-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Subdural hematoma (SDH) drains into the extracranial lymphatic system through the meningeal lymphatic vessels (mLVs) but the formation of SDH impairs mLVs. Because vitamin D (Vit D) can protect the endothelial cells, we hypothesized that Vit D may enhance the SDH clearance. SDH was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats and treated with Vit D or vehicle. Hematoma volume in each group was measured by H&E staining and hemoglobin quantification. Evans blue (EB) quantification and red blood cells injection were used to evaluated the drainage of mLVs. Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence were conducted to assess the expression of lymphatic protein markers. We also examined the inflammatory factors levels in subdural space by ELISA. Vit D treatment significantly reduced SDH volume and improved the drainage of SDH to cervical lymph nodes. The structure of mLVs in SDH rats were protected by Vit D, and the expressions of LYVE1, PROX1, FOXC2, and VE-cadherin were increased after Vit D treatment. The TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8 levels were reduced in Vit D group. In vitro, Vit D also increased the VE-cadherin expression levels under inflammation. Vit D protects the structure of mLVs and enhances the absorption of SDH, partly by the anti-inflammatory effect of Vit D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Xuanhui Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Jiangyuan Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Shiying Dong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Meng Nie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Weiwei Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Mingqi Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Tao Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Chenrui Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | - Chuang Gao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China.
| | - Jianning Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China.
| | - Rongcai Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China.
- Ministry of Education, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Key Laboratory of Post Neuro-injury Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, 154 Anshan Road, Helping District, Tianjin, 300052, China.
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Paliu IA, Olinca MV, Ianosi SL, Georgescu CV, Turcu-Stiolica A, Diaconu M, Dumitrescu CI, Tica AA. CYP27B1 Enzyme in Psoriasis: A Preliminary Study of Immunohistochemical Observations. Life (Basel) 2023; 14:15. [PMID: 38276264 PMCID: PMC10817706 DOI: 10.3390/life14010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Connections between vitamin D and psoriasis have been a matter of interest for the past decades, with its active metabolite, 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D, being valued for antiproliferative and immunomodulatory effects. However, none of vitamin D's actions could be possible without the CYP27B1 enzyme that bio-activates this metabolite of interest. In order to see if there is any link between the enzyme expression and the disease's particularities, we conducted a preliminary study that involved 11 skin biopsies of patients with mild (n = 4) or moderate to severe psoriasis (n = 7). The cell proliferation antigen Ki67 and the CD45RO+ marker were also assessed. Compared with healthy skin, in psoriasis, it is reported that the enzyme's expression seems to be more ubiquitous, but a clear correlation between the disease's severity and the CYP27B1 expression was, to our knowledge, lacking. We found that, in patients with very mild psoriasis, the enzyme expression was observed in the epidermal stratum basale in a similar manner as in healthy skin specimens. Contrary, for higher severity scores, a divergent result was observed, with the enzyme being either variably spread in the epidermal stratum spinosum or completely absent. Unlike malignant diseases, a significant connection between CYP27B1 and Ki67 (p = 0.313) or CYP27B1 and CD45RO+ (p = 0.657) does not seem to be relevant in psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iulia-Alexandra Paliu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania; (I.-A.P.); (M.D.); (C.-I.D.); (A.-A.T.)
| | - Maria-Victoria Olinca
- Department of Pathology, “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 020021 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Simona-Laura Ianosi
- Department of Dermatology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania
| | | | - Adina Turcu-Stiolica
- Department of Pharmacoeconomics, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania;
| | - Magdalena Diaconu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania; (I.-A.P.); (M.D.); (C.-I.D.); (A.-A.T.)
| | - Cristiana-Iulia Dumitrescu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania; (I.-A.P.); (M.D.); (C.-I.D.); (A.-A.T.)
| | - Andrei-Adrian Tica
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania; (I.-A.P.); (M.D.); (C.-I.D.); (A.-A.T.)
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Synergistic Anti-Cancer Activity of the Combination of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and Retinoic Acid in U937 Cell Line. Rep Biochem Mol Biol 2022; 11:440-449. [PMID: 36718308 PMCID: PMC9883028 DOI: 10.52547/rbmb.11.3.440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Background MicroRNA is a form of non-coding RNAs that able to regulate gene expression. miR-424 is one of the members of the regulatory family, which plays an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of myeloid cells. Epigenetic changes can change the level of miR-424 under environmental factors. Therefore, the level of expression of miR-424 in U937 cells of the myeloid line was evaluated in this research under the influence of vitamin D3 (VitD3) and retinoic acid (RA). Methods In this study, U937 cells were cultured in the presence of VitD3, and RA to evaluate cell proliferation, viability via the trypan blue exclusion test, and expression level of miR-424 by real-time PCR at specific times. Results Cell proliferation has shown a significant decrease in the RA group versus other groups during incubation times (P < 0.05). In VitD3 group, there was a significant increase in cell proliferation after 24- and 48-hours incubation periods versus other groups. In the VitD3 and RA groups, the increase of cell proliferation caused the downregulation of miR-424. In addition, the upregulation of VitD3 group and downregulation of the RA group were significant versus the control group (P < 0.05). Discussion We concluded that the expression level of miR-424 was critically affected in the dose- and time-dependent of RA and VitD3 treatment in the U937 cell line. Treatment with VitD3 decreased the expression of miR-424 and RA treatment increase miR-424 expression level in physiological doses.
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Meeker SM, Seamons A, Treuting PM, Paik J, Brabb T, Hsu CC, Grady WM, Maggio-Price L. Effect of Chronic Vitamin D Deficiency on the Development and Severity of DSS-Induced Colon Cancer in Smad3-/- Mice. Comp Med 2020; 70:120-130. [PMID: 32014085 PMCID: PMC7137544 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-19-000021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Both human epidemiologic data and animal studies suggest that low serum vitamin D increases the risk of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and consequently IBD-associated colorectal cancer. We tested the hypothesis that vitamin D deficiency increases the risk for colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) by using an established CAC mouse model, 129-Smad3tm1Par/J (Smad3-/-) mice, which have defective transforming growth factor β-signaling and develop colitis and CAC after the administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS). After determining a dietary regimen that induced chronic vitamin D deficiency in Smad3-/- mice, we assessed the effects of vitamin D deficiency on CAC. Decreasing dietary vitamin D from 1 IU/g diet (control diet) to 0.2 IU /g diet did not decrease serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels in Smad3-/- mice. A diet devoid of vitamin D (< 0.02 IU/g diet [no added vitamin D]; vitamin D-null) significantly decreased serum 25(OH)D levels in mice after 2 wk (null compared with control diet: 8.4 mg/mL compared with 12.2 ng/mL) and further decreased serum levels to below the detection limit after 9 wk but did not affect weight gain, serum calcium levels, bone histology, or bone mineral density. In light of these results, Smad3-/- mice were fed a vitamin D-null diet and given DSS to induce colitis. Unexpectedly, DSS-treated Smad3-/- mice fed a vitamin D-null diet had improved survival, decreased colon tumor incidence (8% compared with 36%), and reduced the incidence and severity of colonic dysplasia compared with mice fed the control diet. These effects correlated with increased epithelial cell proliferation and repair early in the disease, perhaps reducing the likelihood of developing chronic colitis and progression to cancer. Our results indicate that vitamin D deficiency is beneficial in some cases of CAC, possibly by promoting intestinal healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey M Meeker
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio;,
| | - Audrey Seamons
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Piper M Treuting
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Jisun Paik
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Thea Brabb
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Charlie C Hsu
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | | | - Lillian Maggio-Price
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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6
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Ehterami A, Salehi M, Farzamfar S, Samadian H, Vaez A, Sahrapeyma H, Ghorbani S. A promising wound dressing based on alginate hydrogels containing vitamin D3 cross-linked by calcium carbonate/d-glucono-δ-lactone. Biomed Eng Lett 2020; 10:309-319. [PMID: 32431957 DOI: 10.1007/s13534-020-00155-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we fabricated vitamin D3-loaded alginate hydrogel and assessed its wound healing capability in the animal model. The various concentrations of vitamin D3 were added to the pre-dissolved sodium alginate in deionized water and cross-linked by calcium carbonate in combination with d-glucono-δ-lactone. The microstructure, swelling behavior, weight loss, hemo- and cytocompatibility of the fabricated hydrogels were evaluated. In the last stage, the therapeutic efficacy of the prepared hydrogels was evaluated in the full-thickness dermal wound model. The scanning electron microscopy images showed that the prepared hydrogel was highly porous with the porosity of 89.2 ± 12.5% and contained the interconnected pores. Weight loss assessment showed that the prepared hydrogel is biodegradable with the weight loss percentage of about 89% in 14 days. The results showed that the prepared hydrogels were hemo- and cytocompatible. The animal study results implied that alginate hydrogel/3000 IU vitamin D3 group exhibited the highest wound closure present which was statistically significant than the control group (p < 0.05). Moreover, the histological examinations revealed that hydrogel containing 3000 IU vitamin D3 had the best performance and induced the highest re-epithelialization and granular tissue formation. All in all, this study suggests that alginate hydrogels with 3000 IU vitamin D3 can be exploited as a potential wound dressing in skin tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arian Ehterami
- 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Salehi
- 2Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran.,3Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Research Center, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Saeed Farzamfar
- 4Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hadi Samadian
- 5Nano Drug Delivery Research Center, Health Technology Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Ahmad Vaez
- 6Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Hamed Sahrapeyma
- 7Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sadegh Ghorbani
- 8Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.,9Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Differential activity of 2-methylene-19-nor vitamin D analogs on growth factor gene expression in rhino mouse skin and comparison to all-trans retinoic acid. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188887. [PMID: 29182680 PMCID: PMC5705097 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While all 2-methylene-19-nor analogs of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1α,25(OH)2D3) tested produce an increase in epidermal thickness in the rhino mouse, only a subset reduce utricle size (comedolysis). All-trans retinoic acid (atRA) also causes epidermal thickening and a reduction in utricle size in the rhino mouse. We now report that 2-methylene-19-nor-(20S)-1α-hydroxybishomopregnacalciferol (2MbisP), a comedolytic analog, increases epidermal thickening more rapidly than does atRA, while both reduce utricle area at an equal rate. Whereas unlike atRA, 2MbisP does not alter the epidermal growth factor receptor ligand, heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, it does increase the expression of both amphiregulin and epigen mRNA, even after a single dose. In situ hybridization reveals an increase in these transcripts throughout the closing utricle as well as in the interfollicular epidermis. The mRNAs for other EGFR ligands including betacellulin and transforming growth factor-α, as well as the epidermal growth factor receptor are largely unaffected by 2MbisP. Another analog, 2-methylene-19-nor-(20S)-26,27-dimethylene-1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (CAGE-3), produces epidermal thickening but fails to reduce utricle size or increase AREG mRNA levels. CAGE-3 modestly increases epigen mRNA levels, but only after 5 days of dosing. Thus, 2-MbisP produces unique changes in epidermal growth factor receptor ligand mRNAs that may be responsible for both epidermal proliferation and a reduction in utricle size.
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Noordam R, Hamer MA, Pardo LM, van der Nat T, Kiefte-de Jong JC, Kayser M, Slagboom PE, Uitterlinden A, Zillikens MC, Beekman M, Nijsten T, van Heemst D, Gunn DA. No Causal Association between 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Features of Skin Aging: Evidence from a Bidirectional Mendelian Randomization Study. J Invest Dermatol 2017; 137:2291-2297. [PMID: 28760659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2017.07.817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Data from in vitro experiments suggest that vitamin D reduces the rate of skin aging, whereas population studies suggest the opposite, most likely due to confounding by UV exposure. We investigated whether there are causal associations between 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and features of skin aging in a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study. In the Rotterdam Study (N = 3,831; 58.2% women, median age 66.5 years) and Leiden Longevity Study (N = 661; 50.5% women, median age 63.1 years), facial skin aging features (perceived age, wrinkling, pigmented spots) were assessed either manually or digitally. Associations between 25-hydroxyvitamin D and skin aging features were tested by multivariable linear regression. Mendelian randomization analyses were performed using single nucleotide polymorphisms identified from previous genome-wide association studies. After meta-analysis of the two cohorts, we observed that higher serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D was associated with a higher perceived age (P-value = 3.6 × 10-7), more skin wrinkling (P-value = 2.6 × 10-16), but not with more pigmented spots (P-value = 0.30). In contrast, a genetically determined 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration was not associated with any skin aging feature (P-values > 0.05). Furthermore, a genetically determined higher degree of pigmented spots was not associated with higher 25-hydroxyvitamin D (P-values > 0.05). Our study did not indicate that associations between 25-hydroxyvitamin D and features of skin aging are causal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond Noordam
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Merel A Hamer
- Department of Dermatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Luba M Pardo
- Department of Dermatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Tamara van der Nat
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Jessica C Kiefte-de Jong
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Leiden University College, the Hague, the Netherlands
| | - Manfred Kayser
- Department of Genetic Identification, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - P Eline Slagboom
- Department of Medical Statistics and Bioinformatics, Section of Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - André Uitterlinden
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - M Carola Zillikens
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marian Beekman
- Department of Medical Statistics and Bioinformatics, Section of Molecular Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Tamar Nijsten
- Department of Dermatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Diana van Heemst
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
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Yazdani S, Poosti F, Toro L, Wedel J, Mencke R, Mirković K, de Borst MH, Alexander JS, Navis G, van Goor H, van den Born J, Hillebrands JL. Vitamin D inhibits lymphangiogenesis through VDR-dependent mechanisms. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44403. [PMID: 28303937 PMCID: PMC5355885 DOI: 10.1038/srep44403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive lymphangiogenesis is associated with cancer progression and renal disease. Attenuation of lymphangiogenesis might represent a novel strategy to target disease progression although clinically approved anti-lymphangiogenic drugs are not available yet. VitaminD(VitD)-deficiency is associated with increased cancer risk and chronic kidney disease. Presently, effects of VitD on lymphangiogenesis are unknown. Given the apparently protective effects of VitD and the deleterious associations of lymphangiogenesis with renal disease, we here tested the hypothesis that VitD has direct anti-lymphangiogenic effects in vitro and is able to attenuate lymphangiogenesis in vivo. In vitro cultured mouse lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) expressed VitD Receptor (VDR), both on mRNA and protein levels. Active VitD (calcitriol) blocked LEC tube formation, reduced LEC proliferation, and induced LEC apoptosis. siRNA-mediated VDR knock-down reversed the inhibitory effect of calcitriol on LEC tube formation, demonstrating how such inhibition is VDR-dependent. In vivo, proteinuric rats were treated with vehicle or paricalcitol for 6 consecutive weeks. Compared with vehicle-treated proteinuric rats, paricalcitol showed markedly reduced renal lymphangiogenesis. In conclusion, our data show that VitD is anti-lymphangiogenic through VDR-dependent anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic mechanisms. Our findings highlight an important novel function of VitD demonstrating how it may have therapeutic value in diseases accompanied by pathological lymphangiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleh Yazdani
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Fariba Poosti
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Division of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Luis Toro
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Division of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.,Seccion de Nefrologia, Departamento de Medicina, Hospital Clinico Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Investigacion Clinica Avanzada, Hospital Clinico Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Johannes Wedel
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Division of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rik Mencke
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Division of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Katarina Mirković
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Martin H de Borst
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - J Steven Alexander
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center-Shreveport, Louisiana, USA
| | - Gerjan Navis
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Harry van Goor
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Division of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jacob van den Born
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan-Luuk Hillebrands
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Division of Pathology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Brinkhuizen T, Frencken KJ, Nelemans PJ, Hoff ML, Kelleners-Smeets NW, zur Hausen A, van der Horst MP, Rennspiess D, Winnepenninckx VJ, van Steensel MA, Mosterd K. The effect of topical diclofenac 3% and calcitriol 3 μg/g on superficial basal cell carcinoma (sBCC) and nodular basal cell carcinoma (nBCC): A phase II, randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 2016; 75:126-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2016.01.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Huang Y, Jin H, Chen J, Jiang X, Li P, Ren Y, Liu W, Yao J, Folger JK, Smith GW, Lv L. Effect of Vitamin D on basal and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) induced testosterone production and mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity in cultured Leydig cells from immature and mature rams. Anim Reprod Sci 2015; 158:109-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2015.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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1α, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D₃ and the vitamin D receptor regulates ΔNp63α levels and keratinocyte proliferation. Cell Death Dis 2015; 6:e1781. [PMID: 26068789 PMCID: PMC4669830 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2015.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (VD3), a secosteriod that has been explored as an anti-cancer agent, was also shown to promote cell survival. Its receptor, the Vitamin D Receptor (VDR), is a direct target of the proto-oncogene ΔNp63α, which is overexpressed in non-melanoma skin cancers. The interconnection between VDR/VD3 signaling and ΔNp63α, led us to examine whether VDR/VD3 signaling promotes keratinocyte proliferation by regulating ΔNp63α levels. Our data demonstrate that VDR regulates ΔNp63α expression at both the transcript and protein level. Interestingly, although low doses of VD3 led to an increase in ΔNp63α protein levels and keratinocyte proliferation, high doses of VD3 failed to increase ΔNp63α protein levels and resulted in reduced proliferation. Increased expression of ΔNp63α by low dose VD3 was shown to be dependent on VDR and critical for the proliferative effects of VD3. VD3-mediated increases in ΔNp63α protein levels occur via activation of both p38 MAPK and Akt kinases. Finally, analysis of samples from patients with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), basal cell carcinoma and precursors to invasive SCC demonstrated a significant correlation between p63 and VDR levels when compared with healthy normal skin control samples. Delineation of the mechanisms by which VD3 exerts its effect on ΔNp63α and cell proliferation is critical for determining the future of VD3 in cancer therapies.
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Özerkan D, Özsoy N, Yılmaz E. Vitamin D and melatonin protect the cell's viability and ameliorate the CCl4 induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 and Hep3B hepatoma cell lines. Cytotechnology 2014; 67:995-1002. [PMID: 24997582 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-014-9738-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is widely used to induce liver toxicity in in vitro/in vivo models. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) begins with toxicity and affects cell viability. Recently, the beneficial effects of melatonin and Vitamin D on cell proliferation in human normal and cancer cells were found. This study was planned to evaluate antioxidant and cytoprotective activity of melatonin and Vitamin D in CCl4 induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 and Hep3B hepatoma cell lines. Based on the cytotoxicity assay, melatonin and Vitamin D were evaluated for cytotoprotective potential against CCl4 induced toxicity in HepG2 and Hep3B liver cell lines by monitoring cell viability, LPO and glutathione (GSH) level. Different dosages of CCl4 (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 % v/v) were applied to HepG2 and Hep3B cells in order to determine the most toxic dosage of it in a time dependent manner. The same experiments were repeated with exogenously applied melatonin (MEL) and Vitamin D to groups treated with/without CCL4. Cell viability was determined with MTT measurements at the 2nd, 24th and 48th h. GSH content and Malondialdehyde levels were measured from the cell lysates. As a result, both melatonin and Vitamin D administration during CCl4 exposure protected liver cells from CCl4 induced cell damage. Increase in LPO and decrease in GSH were found in the CCl4 groups of both cells. Contrary to these results administration of MEL and Vitamin D on cells exhibited results similar to the control groups. Therefore, melatonin and Vitamin D might be a promising therapeutic agent in several toxic hepatic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilşad Özerkan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Kastamonu University, 37100, Kastamonu, Turkey.
| | - Nesrin Özsoy
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, Tandogan, 06100, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Erkan Yılmaz
- Institute of Biotechnology, Ankara University, Tandogan, 06100, Ankara, Turkey.
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Bailey LJ, Choudhary V, Merai P, Bollag WB. Preparation of primary cultures of mouse epidermal keratinocytes and the measurement of phospholipase D activity. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1195:111-31. [PMID: 24840936 DOI: 10.1007/7651_2014_80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In this chapter information is provided about the outer layer of the skin, the epidermis, and the predominant cells comprising this epithelium, the keratinocytes. The evidence supporting a possible role for the lipid-metabolizing enzyme phospholipase D in regulating keratinocyte differentiation is also discussed. A detailed protocol for the preparation of primary cultures of epidermal keratinocytes from neonatal mice is described, to allow other investigators to obtain data concerning these important cells involved in forming and maintaining the mechanical and water permeability of the skin. Finally, a complete protocol for monitoring phospholipase D activity in intact cells is supplied in the hope that additional research will result in a better understanding of the role of phospholipase D in controlling keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakiea J Bailey
- Department of Physiology, Georgia Regents University, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, GA, 30912, USA
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Thompson L, Wang S, Tawfik O, Templeton K, Tancabelic J, Pinson D, Anderson HC, Keighley J, Garimella R. Effect of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1 α,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on differentiation and apoptosis of human osteosarcoma cell lines. J Orthop Res 2012; 30:831-44. [PMID: 22042758 DOI: 10.1002/jor.21585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Osteosarcoma (OS) is a malignant bone tumor predominantly affecting children and adolescents. OS has a 60% survival rate with current treatments; hence, there is a need to identify novel adjuncts to chemotherapeutic regimens. In this pilot study, we investigated the dose-response to 1α,25-dihdroxyvitamin D(3) (1,α 25(OH)(2) D(3)) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) (25(OH)D(3)) by human OS cell lines, SaOS-2, and 143B. We hypothesized that 1,α 25(OH)(2) D(3) and 25(OH)D(3) would stimulate differentiation and induce apoptosis in OS cells in a dose-dependent manner. Human OS cell lines, SaOS-2, and 143B, were treated with 1,α 25(OH)(2)D(3) or 25(OH)D(3) or an ethanol control, respectively, at concentrations ranging from 1 to 1,000 nM. Ki67 (a marker of cellular proliferation) immunocytochemistry revealed no significant changes in the expression of Ki-67 or MIB-1 in 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3) or 25(OH)D(3) treated SaOS-2 or 143B cells. Both control and 1α,25(OH)(2) D(3) treated SaOS-2 and 143B cells expressed vitamin D receptor (VDR). Markers of osteoblastic differentiation in 143B cells and SaOS-2 cells were induced by both 25(OH)D(3) and 1α,25(OH)(2) D, and evident by increases in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, osteocalcin (OCN) mRNA expression, and mineralization of extra-cellular matrix (ECM) by alizarin red staining. An increasing trend in apoptosis in response to 25(OH)D(3), in both SaOS-2 and 143B cells was detected by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining. With 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3) treatment, apoptosis was evident at higher concentrations only. These preliminary findings suggest that OS cells express VDR and respond to 25(OH)D(3) and 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3) by undergoing differentiation and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey Thompson
- Department of Dietetics and Nutrition, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
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Abstract
Vitamin D has pleiotropic effects that go beyond its traditional role in calcium homeostasis. Hundreds of genes with vitamin D receptor response elements directly or indirectly influence cell cycling and proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Vitamin D compounds also have effects on cell function that are nongenomic. The noncalcemic actions of vitamin D influence normal and pathological cell growth, carcinogenesis, immune function, and cardiovascular physiology. This review examines many of the various mechanisms by which vitamin D alters cellular growth and differentiation and explores cell-specific factors that influence responsiveness to vitamin D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Samuel
- The Western New York Veterans Administration Medical Center, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14215, USA
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Abstract
The skin is the major source of Vitamin D(3) (cholecalciferol), and ultraviolet light (UV) is critical for its formation. Keratinocytes, the major cell in the epidermis, can further convert Vitamin D(3) to its hormonal form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) [1,25(OH)(2)D(3)] (calcitriol). 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) in turn stimulates the differentiation of keratinocytes, raising the hope that 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) may prevent the development of malignancies in these cells. Skin cancers (squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), basal cell carcinoma (BCC), and melanomas) are the most common cancers afflicting humans. UV exposure is linked to the incidence of these cancers-UV is thus good and bad for epidermal health. Our focus is on the mechanisms by which 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) regulates the differentiation of keratinocytes, and how this regulation breaks down in transformed cells. Skin cancers produce 1,25(OH)(2)D(3), contain ample amounts of the Vitamin D receptor (VDR), and respond to 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) with respect to induction of the 24-hydroxylase, but fail to differentiate in response to 1,25(OH)(2)D(3). Why not? The explanation may lie in the overexpression of the DRIP complex, which by interfering with the normal transition from DRIP to SRC as coactivators of the VDR during differentiation, block the induction of genes required for 1,25(OH)(2)D(3)-induced differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel D Bikle
- Endocrine Research Unit, Veterans Affairs Medical Center (111N), University of California, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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Abstract
Skin cancer is the most common cancer afflicting humans. These cancers include melanomas and 2 types of malignant keratinocytes: basal-cell carcinomas (BCC) and squamous-cell carcinomas (SCC). UV light exposure is linked to the incidence of these cancers. On the other hand, the skin is the major source of vitamin D-3 (cholecalciferol) and UV light is critical for its formation. Keratinocytes can convert vitamin D-3 to its hormonal form, 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D(3) [1,25(OH)(2)D(3)] (calcitriol). 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) in turn stimulates the differentiation of keratinocytes, raising the hope that 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) may prevent the development of malignancies in these cells. We identified a number of mechanisms by which 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) regulates the differentiation of keratinocytes and explored where this regulation breaks down in SCCs. 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) regulates gene expression by activating the vitamin D receptor (VDR). When activated, the VDR binds to one of two coactivator complexes: DRIP or p160/SRC. Binding to DRIP occurs in the undifferentiated keratinocyte, but, as the cell differentiates, DRIP(205) levels fall and p160/SRC binding takes over as SRC3 expression increases. SCCs fail to respond to the prodifferentiating actions of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3). These cells have normal levels of VDR and normal binding of VDR to vitamin D response elements. However, they overexpress DRIP(205) such that the p160/SRC complex is blocked from binding to VDR. We hypothesize that failure of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) to induce differentiation in SCCs lies at least in part with its failure to induce the replacement of the DRIP complex with the SRC complex in the promoters of genes required for differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel D Bikle
- Endocrine Research Unit, VA Medical Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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Bollag WB, Zhong X, Josephson S. 8-Cl-Adenosine enhances 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-induced growth inhibition without affecting 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3-stimulated differentiation of primary mouse epidermal keratinocytes. BMC Pharmacol 2004; 4:13. [PMID: 15279680 PMCID: PMC509244 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2210-4-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2004] [Accepted: 07/27/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epidermal keratinocytes continuously proliferate and differentiate to form the mechanical and water permeability barrier that makes terrestrial life possible. In certain skin diseases, these processes become dysregulated, resulting in abnormal barrier formation. In particular, skin diseases such as psoriasis, actinic keratosis and basal and squamous cell carcinomas are characterized by hyperproliferation and aberrant or absent differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes. We previously demonstrated that 8-Cl-adenosine (8-Cl-Ado) can induce keratinocyte growth arrest without inducing differentiation. Results To determine if this agent might be useful in treating hyperproliferative skin disorders, we investigated whether 8-Cl-Ado could enhance the ability of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3], a known keratinocyte differentiating agent and a clinical treatment for psoriasis, to inhibit keratinocyte growth. We found that low concentrations of 8-Cl-Ado and 1,25(OH)2D3 appeared to act additively to reduce proliferation of primary mouse epidermal keratinocytes. However, another agent (transforming growth factor-beta) that triggers growth arrest without inducing differentiation also coincidentally inhibits differentiation elicited by other agents; inhibition of differentiation is suboptimal for treating skin disorders, as differentiation is often already reduced. Thus, we determined whether 8-Cl-Ado also decreased keratinocyte differentiation induced by 1,25(OH)2D3, as measured using the early and late differentiation markers, keratin 1 protein levels and transglutaminase activity, respectively. 8-Cl-Ado did not affect 1,25(OH)2D3-stimulated keratin 1 protein expression or transglutaminase activity. Conclusions Our results suggest that 8-Cl-Ado might be useful in combination with differentiating agents for the treatment of hyperproliferative disorders of the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy B Bollag
- Department of Medicine (Dermatology), Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
- Cell Biology and Anatomy, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
| | - Xiaofeng Zhong
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
| | - Sarah Josephson
- Institute of Molecular Medicine & Genetics, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912 USA
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Eelen G, Verlinden L, van Camp M, van Hummelen P, Marchal K, de Moor B, Mathieu C, Carmeliet G, Bouillon R, Verstuyf A. The effects of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the expression of DNA replication genes. J Bone Miner Res 2004; 19:133-46. [PMID: 14753745 DOI: 10.1359/jbmr.0301204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED To identify key genes in the antiproliferative action of 1,25(OH)2D3, MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblasts were subjected to cDNA microarray analyses. Eleven E2F-driven DNA replication genes were downregulated by 1,25(OH)2D3. These results were confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR in different cell types, showing the general nature of this action of 1,25(OH)2D3. INTRODUCTION 1Alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3] has a potent antiproliferative action characterized by a blocked transition from the G1- to the S-phase of the cell cycle. This study aims to identify genes whose expression is markedly altered after 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment in parallel with or preceding the observed G1-arrest. MATERIALS AND METHODS The cDNA microarray technique was used, and the expression of approximately 4600 genes in MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblasts was studied 6 and 12 h after treatment with 10(-8) M 1,25(OH)2D3. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses were performed on MC3T3-E1 cells and on wildtype and vitamin D receptor (VDR) knockout primary murine epidermal keratinocytes (VDRwt MEKs, VDR-/- MEKs) and murine mammary tumor cells (GR) to confirm the microarray data. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS After 12 h of treatment, in parallel with the 1,25(OH)2D3-induced G1 arrest, a particular set of DNA replication genes including a cell division cycle 6 homolog, a DNA polymerase alpha subunit, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, two DNA polymerase delta subunits, and flap-structure specific endonuclease 1, was downregulated at least 2-fold. These genes are known targets of the E2F family of transcription factors, which are probably the central mediators of this action of 1,25(OH)2D3. Indeed, as shown by transfection assays with an E2F reporter construct, 12- and 24-h treatment of MC3T3-E1 cells with 1,25(OH)2D3 reduced E2F activity by 49% and 73%, respectively. Quantitative RT-PCR analyses confirmed the downregulation of these DNA replication genes by 1,25(OH)2D3 in MC3T3-E1, GR, and VDRwt MEKs cells, but not in VDR-/- MEKs cells, showing that this 1,25(OH)2D3-driven antiproliferative action is of a general nature and depends on a functional VDR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Eelen
- Laboratorium voor Experimentele Geneeskunde en Endocrinologie, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Bikle DD, Xie Z, Ng D, Tu CL, Oda Y. Squamous cell carcinomas fail to respond to the prodifferentiating actions of 1,25(OH)2D: why? Recent Results Cancer Res 2003; 164:111-22. [PMID: 12899516 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-55580-0_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
1,25(OH)2D regulates a number of cellular events which contribute to its ability to stimulate differentiation of the keratinocyte. 1,25(OH)2D raises the intracellular calcium (Cai) level in part by increasing the expression of the calcium receptor (CaR). This sensitizes the cell to extracellular calcium, triggering the signaling pathway coupled to the CaR, which results in a rise in Cai. 1,25(OH)2D induces the family of phospholipases C (PLC). These enzymes mediate the hydrolysis of phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate (PIP2) to form inositol tris phosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DG), which stimulate calcium release from intracellular stores and activate protein kinases C (PKC), respectively. The CaR and other G protein coupled receptors signal through PLC-beta, whereas tyrosine kinase growth factor receptors such as the EGF receptor signal through PLC-gamma. Calcium and PKC regulate the expression of genes in part by controlling the levels and activity of AP-1 transcription factors. 1,25(OH)2D also directly induces structural genes such as involucrin, a substrate for transglutaminase, which crosslinks it to other substrates to form the cornified envelope. 1,25(OH)2D regulates gene expression by activating the vitamin D receptor (VDR), a transcription factor, which, in combination with the retinoid X receptor (RXR) or retinoid A receptor (RAR), binds to its vitamin D response elements (VDRE) in the promoters of genes whose expression it regulates. The VDR also binds to one of two coactivator complexes, Mediator/DRIP (VDR interacting proteins) or p160/SRC (steroid hormone receptor complex), complexes which link the VDR to the RNA polymerase complex. We have recently discovered that the binding of VDR to these complexes is sequential. Binding to Mediator/DRIP occurs in the undifferentiated keratinocyte, but as the cell differentiates, DRIP(205) (the key protein of the DRIP complex binding to the VDR) levels fall, and p160/SRC binding takes over. We hypothesize that this sequential replacement of Mediator/DRIP by p160/SRC is critical for differentiation. Squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) fail to respond to the prodifferentiating actions of 1,25(OH)2D. These cells have normal levels of VDR and normal binding of VDR to VDREs. However, they fail to down-regulate DRIP(205) such that the p160/SRC complex fails to bind to VDR. This lack of sequential binding of these coactivator complexes to the VDR, we believe, maintains the cell in a state of continued proliferation and blocks the ability of 1,25(OH)2D to induce the expression of genes required for the differentiation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel D Bikle
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center (111 N), University of California, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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22
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Arroyo CM, Kan RK, Burman DL, Kahler DW, Nelson MR, Corun CM, Guzman JJ, Broomfield CA. Regulation of 1-alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 induced by sulfur mustard (HD) on human skin cells. PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY 2003; 92:204-13. [PMID: 12753408 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0773.2003.920503.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The regulatory effects of the active form of vitamin D, 1-alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3) were assessed on the cytokine and chemokine secretion induced by sulfur mustard on human skin fibroblasts and human epidermal keratinocytes. Stimulation of human skin fibroblasts with sulfur mustard (10(-4) M for 24 hr at 37 degrees ) resulted in approximately a 5 times increase in the secretion of interleukin-6 and over a 10 times increase for interleukin-8, which was inhibited by 1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3, at <or=10(-9) M. 1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3 also suppressed interleukin-8 secretion by 5 times and interleukin-6 by 4 times on sulfur mustard-stimulated human epidermal keratinocytes at concentrations <or= 10(-9) M. The effect of 1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3 was dose-dependent for the suppression of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 induced by sulfur mustard on human skin fibroblasts/human epidermal keratinocytes, apparent at nanomolar concentrations. Our results indicate that the suppression of these inflammatory mediators by 1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3 is dependent on the source of the primary cultures, cell densities, and kinetics of pretreatments. In contrast to the inhibition of cytokine/chemokine production, cell proliferation was enhanced by almost 1.7 times on treated human epidermal keratinocytes with 1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3 (1 x 10(-9) M) after sulfur mustard-stimulation (10(-4) M for 24 hr at 37 degrees C). The observed enhancement diversified based on cell density, and kinetics of pretreatment with a maximal synergism (s) observed at 1 x 10(-9) M. Photomicrographs show typical signs of cellular degeneration caused by sulfur mustard such as chromatin condensation. The observed cellular degeneration was lessened when human epidermal keratinocytes were treated with 1-alpha, 25 (OH)2D3 (2 x 10(-9) M). 1-alpha, 25(OH)2D3 could be an alternative treatment for cutaneous inflammation disorders caused by sulfur mustard because we have demonstrated its ability to suppress inflammatory mediators and enhanced cell proliferation in human skin cells stimulated with sulfur mustard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen M Arroyo
- Drug Assessment Division, Comparative Medicine, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA.
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Bikle DD, Tu CL, Xie Z, Oda Y. Vitamin D regulated keratinocyte differentiation: role of coactivators. J Cell Biochem 2003; 88:290-5. [PMID: 12520529 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.10339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
1,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)(2)D) regulates the differentiation of keratinocytes. 1,25(OH)(2)D raises intracellular free calcium (Cai) as a necessary early step toward stimulating differentiation. 1,25(OH)(2)D induces the calcium sensing receptor (CaR) in keratinocytes and enhances the calcium response of these cells. Activation of the CaR by calcium increases intracellular free calcium by a mechanism involving phospholipase C (PLC) cleavage of phosphatidylinositolbisphosphate into inositoltrisphosphate (IP(3)) and diacylglycerol (DG). 1,25(OH)(2)D induces the family of PLCs. PLC-gamma1 has a DR6 VDRE in its promoter which binds and is activated by VDR/RAR rather than VDR/RXR. The involucrin gene, which encodes a critical component of the cornified envelope, contains a DR3 VDRE in its promoter that acts in conjunction with a nearby AP-1 site. The sequential regulation of these genes is critical for the differentiation process. In undifferentiated keratinocytes, the VDR binds preferentially to the DRIP complex of coactivators. However, with differentiation DRIP 205 is no longer produced, and the VDR switches partners to the SRC family (SRC2 and 3). These studies suggest that at least part of the sequential activation of genes required during keratinocyte differentiation is regulated by the change (availability) of these different coactivator complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D D Bikle
- Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of California, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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Gurlek A, Pittelkow MR, Kumar R. Modulation of growth factor/cytokine synthesis and signaling by 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3): implications in cell growth and differentiation. Endocr Rev 2002; 23:763-86. [PMID: 12466189 DOI: 10.1210/er.2001-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Distinct from its classic functions in the regulation of calcium and phosphorus metabolism as a systemic hormone, 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) [1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)] is involved in the local control and regulation of cellular growth and differentiation in various tissues, including epidermis (keratinocytes) and bone (osteoblasts and osteoclasts). In this review, the impact of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) on growth factor/cytokine synthesis and signaling is discussed, particularly as it pertains to bone cells and keratinocytes. 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) not only regulates growth factor/cytokine synthesis but may also alter growth factor signaling. Recently discovered examples for such interactions are the interactions between the vitamin D receptor and the mothers against decapentaplegic-related proteins that function downstream of TGFbeta receptors. Inhibitory effects of 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) on keratinocytes through TGFbeta activation and IL-1alpha, IL-6, and IL-8 suppression may provide a rationale for its beneficial effects in the treatment of hyperproliferative skin disorders, whereas stimulatory effects through the epidermal growth factor-related family members and platelet-derived growth factor may be operative in its beneficial effects in skin atrophy and wound healing. Modulation of cytokines and growth factors by 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) during bone remodeling plays an important role in the coupling of osteoblastic bone formation with osteoclastic resorption to maintain bone mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alper Gurlek
- Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic and Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA
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Lee E, Jeon SH, Yi JY, Jin YJ, Son YS. Calcipotriol inhibits autocrine phosphorylation of EGF receptor in a calcium-dependent manner, a possible mechanism for its inhibition of cell proliferation and stimulation of cell differentiation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001; 284:419-25. [PMID: 11394895 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.2001.4943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We report in this study that proliferation inhibition of SCC13 cells by calcipotriol was possibly mediated by its inhibitory effect on autocrine activation of EGF receptor. Based on MTT assay, PCNA staining, DAPI staining, and involucrin immunocytochemical staining, we showed that calcipotriol inhibited cell growth and stimulated differentiation but did not induce apoptosis. Western blot analysis of concanavalin-A-bound fraction demonstrated that calcipotriol specifically dephosphorylated 170- and 66-kDa polypeptides from 8 h posttreatment and complete dephosphorylation was observed at 12 h posttreatment. The 170- and 66-kDa polypeptides were confirmed as EGF receptor and Shc, respectively. Calcipotriol-mediated EGF receptor dephosphorylation required the presence of extracellular calcium. Similar kinetics of the dephosphorylation was also observed in HaCaT cells cultured in medium of high calcium concentration. By BrdU labeling, we also showed calcium dependency of calcipotriol for the inhibition of cell proliferation. Therefore, EGF receptor deactivation by calcipotriol might be a mechanism of action for the inhibition of cell proliferation and the stimulation of differentiation in SCC13 cell and HaCaT cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Lee
- National Research Laboratory of Tissue Engineering, Korea Cancer Center Hospital, KAERI, 215-4, Gongneung-Dong, Nowon-Gu, Seoul, 139-706, Korea
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26
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Abstract
Calcium and 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)(2)D) regulate the differentiation of keratinocytes. We have examined the mechanisms by which such regulation takes place, focusing primarily on the events leading to cornified envelope (CE) formation, in particular the mechanisms by which calcium and 1,25(OH)(2)D regulate the induction of involucrin, a component of the CE, and transglutaminase, the enzyme cross-linking involucrin and other substrates to form the CE. Both extracellular calcium (Ca(o)) and 1,25(OH)(2)D raise intracellular free calcium (Ca(i)) as a necessary step toward stimulating differentiation. Cells lacking the calcium sensing receptor (CaR) or phospholipase C-gamma 1 (PLC-gamma 1) fail to respond to Ca(o) or 1,25(OH)(2)D with respect to differentiation. Residing in the promoter of involucrin is a region responsive to calcium and 1,25(OH)(2)D, the calcium response element (CaRE). The CaRE contains an AP-1 site, mutations of which result in loss of responsiveness to Ca(o) and 1,25(OH)(2)D, indicating a role for protein kinases C (PKC). PKC alpha is the major PKC isozyme involved at least for calcium-induced differentiation. Thus, the regulation of keratinocyte differentiation by calcium and 1,25(OH)(2)D involves a number of signaling pathways including PLC and PKC activation, leading to the induction of proteins required for the differentiation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- D D Bikle
- Department of Medicine, Veterans Affairs Medical Center (111N), University of California, 4150 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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Gimeno EJ, Costa EF, Gomar MS, Massone AR, Portiansky EL. Effects of plant-induced hypervitaminosis D on cutaneous structure, cell differentiation and cell proliferation in cattle. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. A, PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY, CLINICAL MEDICINE 2000; 47:201-11. [PMID: 10887751 DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0442.2000.00279.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Solanum glaucophyllum (Sg) (synonym S. malacoxylon) is a plant toxic to cattle due to its high levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 as glycoside derivatives. Sg causes a disease characterized by wasting and calcification of soft tissues. The effects of vitamin D are not only important in calcium homeostasis, but also in immune regulation, cell growth and cell differentiation. Skin samples in Sg-intoxicated and control heifers were studied histologically. Cellular differentiation and proliferation were analysed by immunohistochemical expression of cytokeratins, involucrin and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). The results were obtained by image processing and analysis and were statistically evaluated. Sg-intoxicated cattle showed atrophy of epidermis and severe involution of hair follicles and of sebaceous and sweat glands. As judged by PCNA expression, cellular proliferation was reduced, even though the reduction was not statistically significant. The analysed markers of differentiation, e.g. involucrin and cytokeratins 10 and 11, changed in relation to Sg-poisoning. The possible pathogenesis of the skin lesions is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J Gimeno
- Institute of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, Argentina.
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28
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Griner RD, Qin F, Jung E, Sue-Ling CK, Crawford KB, Mann-Blakeney R, Bollag RJ, Bollag WB. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induces phospholipase D-1 expression in primary mouse epidermal keratinocytes. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:4663-70. [PMID: 9988703 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.8.4663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) elicits the programmed pattern of differentiation in epidermal keratinocytes. Based on data indicating a potential role of phospholipase D (PLD) in mediating keratinocyte differentiation, we investigated the effect of 1,25(OH)2D3 on PLD expression. A 24-h exposure to 1, 25(OH)2D3 stimulated PLD-1, but not PLD-2, mRNA expression. This 1, 25(OH)2D3-enhanced expression was accompanied by increased total PLD and PLD-1 activity. Time course studies indicated that 1,25(OH)2D3 induced PLD-1 expression by 8 h, with a maximal increase at 20-24 h. Exposure to 1,25(OH)2D3 inhibited proliferation over the same time period with similar kinetics. Expression of the early (spinous) differentiation marker keratin 1 decreased in response to 1, 25(OH)2D3 over 12-24 h. Treatment with 1,25(OH)2D3 enhanced the activity of transglutaminase, a late (granular) differentiation marker, by 12 h with a maximal increase after 24 h. In situ hybridization studies demonstrated that the highest levels of PLD-1 expression are in the more differentiated (spinous and granular) layers of the epidermis, with little expression in basal keratinocytes. Our results suggest a role for PLD expression/activity during keratinocyte differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Griner
- Departments of Medicine (Dermatology) and Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Georgia 30912, USA
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29
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Abstract
It is well known that steroids are able to produce nongenomic effects on various cells, such as activating protein kinases, opening ionic channels, or stimulating release of second messengers. Recently, calcitriol (the hormonal form of vitamin D) has been shown to stimulate the enzymatic activity of a nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase, Src, in keratinocytes and colonocytes. This mode of signal transduction resembles that utilized by membrane receptors devoid of intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. There is evidence that calcitriol-activated Src plays an important role in signal transduction due to the activation of protein kinase C isozymes or a mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade. Src-mediated signaling, therefore, may be an important mediator of the physiological and pharmacological effects of calcitriol. The synthesis of vitamin D analogs capable of selective activation or inhibition of the Src-mediated signaling pathway(s) may be a new, promising approach to expanding the therapeutic scope and clinical utility of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Gniadecki
- Department of Dermatology, University of Copenhagen, Bispebjerg Hospital, Denmark.
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Gniadecki R, Calverley MJ. Evidence for the activation of vitamin D compounds in the skin by side-chain hydroxylation. PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY 1998; 82:173-6. [PMID: 9584330 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1998.tb01420.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
KH 1060 is the 20-epi-22-oxa-24a-homo-26,27-dimethyl analogue of the natural hormone, 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1 alpha,25(OH)2D3). We have previously shown that after topical application in hairless mice both KH 1060 and 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3 cause epidermal hyperproliferation. MC 1582 differs from KH 1060 by the lack of hydroxyl group in the side chain which is required for receptor binding. We found that MC 1582 strongly stimulates epidermal hyperplasia in hairless mice after topical application in vivo, approaching in potency KH 1060. A similar, although much weaker response was also obtained with 1 alpha-hydroxyvitamin D3 (1 alpha(OH)D3). Since only the vitamin D compounds which possess hydroxyl groups both in the position 1 alpha and in the side chain, bind to the vitamin D receptor, we suggest that a local metabolism of MC 1582 and 1 alpha(OH)D3 takes place in the skin to the active, side-chain-hydroxylated species, probably to KH 1060 and 1 alpha,25(OH)2D3. This study suggests that 1 alpha hydroxylated prodrugs may be of use in the dermatological treatment of the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Gniadecki
- Department of Dermatological Research, Leo Pharmaceutical Products, Ballerup, Denmark
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Svendsen ML, Daneels G, Geysen J, Binderup L, Kragballe K. Proliferation and differentiation of cultured human keratinocytes is modulated by 1,25(OH)2D3 and synthetic vitamin D3 analogues in a cell density-, calcium- and serum-dependent manner. PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY 1997; 80:49-56. [PMID: 9148283 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1997.tb00283.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The natural form of vitamin D3, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) decreases proliferation and promotes terminal differentiation of cultured human epidermal keratinocytes. The purpose of this study was to find out to what extent the culture conditions determine the sensitivity of keratinocytes to 1,25(OH)2D3 and synthetic vitamin D analogues. Human keratinocytes were grown in microplates. Cell proliferation (MTT-assay) and differentiation (quantity of transglutaminase type I) were measured consecutively in the same monolayer. When vitamin D3 analogues were added to 50-60% confluent keratinocytes grown in serum-free keratinocyte growth medium with 0.09 mM Ca2+, stimulation of the proliferation was either minimal or non-existent, while differentiation was unaffected or slightly inhibited. There was no difference in the sensitivity to 1,25(OH)2D3 and the vitamin D3 analogues. When 1,25(OH)2D3 was added to less confluent keratinocytes (30%) a marked antiproliferative effect was observed. Addition of 3% charcoal stripped foetal calf serum further enhanced the antiproliferative effect of 1,25(OH)2D3, and a difference in the sensitivity of the vitamin D3 analogues was noted. If, finally, the Ca2+ concentration was raised to 0.3 mM, 1,25(OH)2D3 and the vitamin D3 analogues stimulated differentiation. Also, a biphasic effect on proliferation occurred: stimulation at low vitamin D concentrations and inhibition at higher concentrations. Furthermore, keratinocytes became more sensitive to the synthetic vitamin D3 analogues than to 1,25(OH)2D3: KH1060 > EB1089 > GS1500 > or = EB1213 > calcipotriol > 1,25(OH)2D3. For all compounds tested differentiation occurred at concentrations 10 to 30 times lower than for proliferation. These results indicate that the sensitivity to vitamin D3 analogues as well as the direction of the response to vitamin D3 analogues is dependent on the keratinocyte density, the availability of serum and Ca2+ concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Svendsen
- Department of Dermatology, Marselisborg Hospital, University of Aarhus, Denmark
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