Role of regulatory miRNAs of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma

Non-coding RNAs and regulation of the PI3K signaling pathway in lung cancer: Recent insights and potential clinical applications

Lung cancer (LC) is one of the most common causes of cancer-related death worldwide. It has been demonstrated that the prognosis of current drug treatments is affected by a variety of factors, including late stage, tumor recurrence, inaccessibility to appropriate treatments, and, most importantly, chemotherapy resistance. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) contribute to tumor development, with some acting as tumor suppressors and others as oncogenes. The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3Ks)/AKT serine/threonine kinase pathway is one of the most important common targets of ncRNAs in cancer, which is widely applied to modulate the cell cycle and a variety of biological processes, including cell growth, mobility survival, metabolic activity, and protein production. Discovering the biology of ncRNA-PI3K/AKT signaling may lead to advances in cancer diagnosis and treatment. As a result, we investigated the expression and role of PI3K/AKT-related ncRNAs in clinical characteristics of lung cancer, as well as their functions as potential biomarkers in lung cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Study on antihepatocellular carcinoma effect of 6-shogaol and curcumin through network-based pharmacological and cellular assay

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma currently has the third highest mortality rate in the world. Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma are on the rise and at a younger age, but research into the pharmacological effects of cancer is mostly single-component, and natural plant products can have additive or synergistic effects that can better amplify the effects of intervention in cancer.

Aim

To evaluate the synergistic therapeutic effects of 6-shogaol and curcumin against hepatocellular carcinoma line HepG2 cells.

Methods

In this study, a network pharmacology approach was used to predict and validate the mol ecular targets and pathways of the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) of 6-shogaol and curcumin in combination and to investigate their mechanism of action. The results were also validated by cellular assays. HepG2 cells were treated with 6-shogaol and curcumin as well as the combination of the two. The combination index of 6-shogaol and curcumin in HepG2 cells was calculated using Compusyn software according to the Chou-Talalay equation. The synergistic anti-cancer effect was next investigated by MTT assay, apoptosis assay and cell cycle assay. The combined anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effect of the Ras-mediated PI3K/AKT and MAPK signalling pathways was analysed using protein blotting assays.

Results

A network pharmacology-based screening identified 72 core targets of 6-curcumin and curcumin in hepatocellular carcinoma, and predicted that the main signalling pathway is the Ras signalling pathway. The anti-cancer effects of 6-shogaol and curcumin were validated in cell-based assays and the optimal synergistic concentrations of 5 μmoL/L for 6-shogaol and 30 μmoL/L for curcumin were determined. 6-shogaol and curcumin synergistically blocked the cell cycle in the G2/M phase and promoted apoptosis. Immunoblot analysis confirmed for the first time the combined action of both in down-regulating the Ras-mediated PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling pathways. In addition, 6-shogaol and curcumin acting together downregulated Cyclin-B, CDK-1, Bcl-2, and upregulated BAX.

Conclusion

6-shogaol and curcumin act synergistically to alter the morphology of hepatocellular carcinoma cells, block the cell cycle in the G2/M phase, inhibit proliferation and division, and effectively promote late apoptosis. The combined action of these two components provides a theoretical basis for the further development of novel anti-liver cancer products.

Impact of microRNA variants on PI3K/AKT signaling in triple-negative breast cancer: comprehensive review

Breast cancer (BC) is a significant cause of cancer-related mortality, and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a particularly aggressive subtype associated with high mortality rates, especially among younger females. TNBC poses a considerable clinical challenge due to its aggressive tumor behavior and limited therapeutic options. Aberrations within the PI3K/AKT pathway are prevalent in TNBC and correlate with increased therapeutic intervention resistance and poor outcomes. MicroRNAs (miRs) have emerged as crucial PI3K/AKT pathway regulators influencing various cellular processes involved in TNBC pathogenesis. The levels of miRs, including miR-193, miR-4649-5p, and miR-449a, undergo notable changes in TNBC tumor tissues, emphasizing their significance in cancer biology. This review explored the intricate interplay between miR variants and PI3K/AKT signaling in TNBC. The review focused on the molecular mechanisms underlying miR-mediated dysregulation of this pathway and highlighted specific miRs and their targets. In addition, we explore the clinical implications of miR dysregulation in TNBC, particularly its correlation with TNBC prognosis and therapeutic resistance. Elucidating the roles of miRs in modulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway will enhance our understanding of TNBC biology and unveil potential therapeutic targets. This comprehensive review aims to discuss current knowledge and open promising avenues for future research, ultimately facilitating the development of precise and effective treatments for patients with TNBC.

The essential roles of lncRNAs/PI3K/AKT axis in gastrointestinal tumors

The role of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) in tumors, particularly in gastrointestinal tumors, has gained significant attention. Accumulating evidence underscores the interaction between various lncRNAs and diverse molecular pathways involved in cancer progression. One such pivotal pathway is the PI3K/AKT pathway, which serves as a crucial intracellular mechanism maintaining the balance among various cellular physiological processes for normal cell growth and survival. Frequent dysregulation of the PI3K/AKT pathway in cancer, along with aberrant activation, plays a critical role in driving tumorigenesis. LncRNAs modulate the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway through diverse mechanisms, primarily by acting as competing endogenous RNA to regulate miRNA expression and associated genes. This interaction significantly influences fundamental biological behaviors such as cell proliferation, metastasis, and drug resistance. Abnormal expression of numerous lncRNAs in gastrointestinal tumors often correlates with clinical outcomes and pathological features in patients with cancer. Additionally, these lncRNAs influence the sensitivity of tumor cells to chemotherapy in multiple types of gastrointestinal tumors through the abnormal activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway. These findings provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying gastrointestinal tumors and potential therapeutic targets. However, gastrointestinal tumors remain a significant global health concern, with increasing incidence and mortality rates of gastrointestinal tumors over recent decades. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the latest research on the interactions of lncRNA and the PI3K/AKT pathway in gastrointestinal tumor development. Additionally, it focuses on the functions of lncRNAs and the PI3K/AKT pathway in carcinogenesis, exploring expression profiles, clinicopathological characteristics, interaction mechanisms with the PI3K/AKT pathway, and potential clinical applications.

Tubuloside B, a major constituent of Cistanche deserticola, inhibits migration of hepatocellular carcinoma by inhibiting Hippo-YAP pathway

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown that phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs) have multiple pharmacological effects such as anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective or neuroprotective functions, whereas their anti-tumor effects are rarely studied. Tubuloside B (Tub B) is a PhG isolated from Cistanche deserticola, a traditional Chinese medicine. To date, there is a lack of comprehensive research regarding the biological activity of Tub B.

PURPOSE

The subject of the current study was to investigate the anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell activity and the underlying mechanism of Tub B.

METHODS

We evaluated the in vitro anti-migratory effect of Tub B by scratch and transwell assays. RNA-seq was employed to identify the differential genes by Tub B. Besides, the functional mechanism of Tub B was investigated by distinct molecular biology techniques including immunofluorescent staining, quantitative PCR, as well as western blot analysis. Subsequently, we utilized Hep3B cells for in vivo metastasis assays through spleen injection and evaluated the anti-migratory effect of Tub B in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

RESULTS

Tub B exhibited in vitro and in vivo inhibition of HCC cell migration. Tub B decreased the expression of transcriptional target genes downstream of the Hippo pathway, including CTGF, CYR61, and N-cadherin as determined by RNA-seq. Furthermore, mechanistic studies confirmed that Tub B increased phosphorylation of YAP at S127, which contributes to YAP cytoplasmic localization. Additionally, overexpression of YAP abrogated Tub B-induced inhibition of HCC migration and the mRNA levels of CTGF, CYR61, and N-cadherin.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these results illustrated that Tub B demonstrated great potential in inhibiting migration of HCC, and a portion of its impact can be attributed to the modulation of the Hippo-YAP pathway.

The mechanism and experimental verification of Ixeris sonchifolia promoting apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma based on network pharmacology: Ixeris sonchifolia Induces Hepatocellular Carcinoma Apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT Pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ixeris sonchifolia alias Kudiezi, it was named Ixeris sonchifolia (Bunge) Hance, a synonym for Crepidiastrum sonchifolium (Bunge) Pak & Kawano in the https://www.iplant.cn/. And it was first published in J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 13: 108 (1873), which was named Ixeris sonchifolia (Maxim.) Hance in the MPNS (http://mpns.kew.org). As a widely distributed medicinal and edible wild plant, it possesses unique bitter-cold characteristics and constituents with various pharmacological activities. Its main antitumor substances, same as artemisinin and paclitaxel, are classified as terpenoids and have become research foci in recent years. However, its specific biological activity and role in antitumor treatment remain largely unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to elucidate the molecular targets and potential mechanisms of hepatocellular carcinoma apoptosis induced by Ixeris sonchifolia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used network pharmacology methods to analyze and screen the active ingredients and possible underlying mechanisms of Ixeris sonchifolia in treating liver cancer and employed integrative time- and dose-dependent toxicity, transcriptomics, and molecular biology approaches to comprehensively verify the function of Ixeris sonchifolia extract (IsE) in human hepatoblastoma cell (HepG2) apoptosis and its potential mechanism.

RESULTS

A total of 169 common targets were screened by network pharmacology, and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis showed that IsE inhibited HepG2 cell activity in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Western blot analysis confirmed that IsE promoted HepG2 cell apoptosis by inhibiting the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and that the PI3K/AKT inhibitor LY294002 also substantially enhanced IsE-induced apoptosis. The PI3K/AKT signaling pathway exhibited significant differences compared to that in the control group.

CONCLUSION

Combining network pharmacology with experimental verification, IsE inhibited mitochondrial function and the PI3K/AKT pathway while inducing hepatoma cell apoptosis. IsE may have promising potential for liver cancer treatment and chemoprevention.

COL5A1 promotes triple-negative breast cancer progression by activating tumor cell-macrophage crosstalk

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an exceptionally aggressive subtype of breast cancer. Despite the recognized interplay between tumors and tumor-associated macrophages in fostering drug resistance and disease progression, the precise mechanisms leading these interactions remain elusive. Our study revealed that the upregulation of collagen type V alpha 1 (COL5A1) in TNBC tissues, particularly in chemoresistant samples, was closely linked to an unfavorable prognosis. Functional assays unequivocally demonstrated that COL5A1 played a pivotal role in fueling cancer growth, metastasis, and resistance to doxorubicin, both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we found that the cytokine IL-6, produced by COL5A1-overexpressing TNBC cells actively promoted M2 macrophage polarization. In turn, TGFβ from M2 macrophages drived TNBC doxorubicin resistance through the TGFβ/Smad3/COL5A1 signaling pathway, establishing a feedback loop between TNBC cells and macrophages. Mechanistically, COL5A1 interacted with TGM2, inhibiting its K48-linked ubiquitination-mediated degradation, thereby enhancing chemoresistance and increasing IL-6 secretion. In summary, our findings underscored the significant contribution of COL5A1 upregulation to TNBC progression and chemoresistance, highlighting its potential as a diagnostic and therapeutic biomarker for TNBC.

Loureirin A Promotes Cell Differentiation and Suppresses Migration and Invasion of Melanoma Cells via WNT and AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathways

Resina Draconis is a traditional Chinese medicine, with the in-depth research, its medicinal value in anti-tumor has been revealed. Loureirin A is extracted from Resina Draconis, however, research on the anti-tumor efficacy of Loureirin A is rare. Herein, we investigated the function of Loureirin A in melanoma. Our research demonstrated that Loureirin A inhibited the proliferation of and caused G0/G1 cell cycle arrest in melanoma cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Further study showed that the melanin content and tyrosinase activity was enhanced after Loureirin A treatment, demonstrated that Loureirin A promoted melanoma cell differentiation, which was accompanied with the reduce of WNT signaling pathway. Meanwhile, we found that Loureirin A suppressed the migration and invasion of melanoma cells through the protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. Taken together, this study demonstrated for the first time the anti-tumor effects of Loureirin A in melanoma cells, which provided a novel therapeutic strategy against melanoma.

Hijacking 5-Fluorouracil Chemoresistance in Triple Negative Breast Cancer via microRNAs-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles

Chemotherapy is still the mainstay of treatment for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients. Yet only 20% of TNBC patients show a pathologic complete response (pCR) after neoadjuvant chemotherapy. 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a stable cornerstone in all recommended chemotherapeutic protocols for TNBC patients. However, TNBC patients' innate or acquired chemoresistance rate for 5-FU is steeply escalating. This study aims to unravel the mechanism behind the chemoresistance of 5-FU in the aggressive TNBC cell line, MDA-MB-231 cells, to explore further the role of the tumor suppressor microRNAs (miRNAs), miR-1275, miR-615-5p, and Let-7i, in relieving the 5-FU chemoresistance in TNBC, and to finally provide a translational therapeutic approach to co-deliver 5-FU and the respective miRNA oligonucleotides using chitosan-based nanoparticles (CsNPs). In this regard, cellular viability and proliferation were investigated using MTT and BrdU assays, respectively. 5-FU was found to induce JAK/STAT and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathways in MDA-MB-231 cells with contaminant repression of their upstream regulators miR-1275, miR-615-5p, and Let-7i. Moreover, CsNPs prepared using the ionic gelation method were chosen and studied as nanovectors of 5-FU and a combination of miRNA oligonucleotides targeting TNBC. The average particle sizes, surface charges, and morphologies of the different CsNPs were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. In addition, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%), drug loading capacity (DLC%), and release manner at two different pH values were assessed. In conclusion, the novel CsNPs co-loaded with 5-FU and the combination of the three miRNA oligonucleotides demonstrated synergistic activity and remarkable repression in cellular viability and proliferation of TNBC cells through alleviating the chemoresistance to 5-FU.

Detailed role of microRNA-mediated regulation of PI3K/AKT axis in human tumors

The regulation of signal transmission and biological processes, such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism, migration, and angiogenesis are greatly influenced by the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Highly conserved endogenous non-protein-coding RNAs known as microRNAs (miRNAs) have the ability to regulate gene expression by inhibiting mRNA translation or mRNA degradation. MiRNAs serve key role in PI3K/AKT pathway as upstream or downstream target, and aberrant activation of this pathway contributes to the development of cancers. A growing body of research shows that miRNAs can control the PI3K/AKT pathway to control the biological processes within cells. The expression of genes linked to cancers can be controlled by the miRNA/PI3K/AKT axis, which in turn controls the development of cancer. There is also a strong correlation between the expression of miRNAs linked to the PI3K/AKT pathway and numerous clinical traits. Moreover, PI3K/AKT pathway-associated miRNAs are potential biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, therapy, and prognostic evaluation. The role and clinical applications of the PI3K/AKT pathway and miRNA/PI3K/AKT axis in the emergence of cancers are reviewed in this article.

Interplay between LncRNA/miRNA and TGF-β Signaling in the Tumorigenesis of Gynecological Cancer

Gynecologic cancers are among the most common malignancies with aggressive features and poor prognosis. Tumorigenesis in gynecologic cancers is a complicated process that is influenced by multiple factors, including genetic mutations that activate various oncogenic signaling pathways, including the TGF-β pathway. Aberrant activation of TGF-β signaling is correlated with tumor recurrence and metastasis. It has been shown that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have crucial effects on cancer cell proliferation, migration, and metastasis. Upregulation of various ncRNAs, including long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) and microRNAs (miRNAs), has been reported in several tumors, like cervical, ovarian, and endometrial cancers, but their cellular mechanisms remain to be investigated. Thus, recognizing the role of ncRNAs in regulating the TGF-β pathway may provide novel strategies for better treatment of cancer patients. The present study summarizes recent findings on the role of ncRNAs in regulating the TGF-β signaling involved in tumor progression and metastasis in gynecologic cancers.

Anti-Glioma Effects of Ligustilide or n-Butylphthalide on Their Own and the Synergistic Effects with Temozolomide via PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

Background

Ligustilide (LIG) and n-butylphthalide (NBP) have neuroprotective effects in cerebral ischemia; however, their roles in gliomas are not well-known.This study aimed to explore the anti-glioma effects of LIG and NBP individually and the synergistic effects of temozolomide (TMZ) via the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway.

Materials and Methods

Cytotoxicity of LIG and NBP alone and in combination with TMZ in U251 cells was determined using the CCk-8. The effect of compounds alone or in combination on cell migration was detected using the wound healing assay, and the invasion was evaluated by transwell assays, respectively. Cell apoptosis was quantified by flow cytometry and the changed expressions of proteins were detected by Western blotting.

Results

The results showed that LIG and NBP significantly inhibited the growth of U251 cells at concentrations of 4-10 µg/mL and 1.5-6 µg/mL in a dose-dependent manner (p<0.05, p<0.01). The combination of 20 µg/mL TMZ with LIG in the concentration range of 4-10 µg/mL or with NBP of 0.5-6 µg/mlachieved synergistic effect towardsU251 cells. LIG and NBP, alone or in combination with TMZ, markedly inhibited cell invasion (p< 0.001) and enhanced apoptosis (p< 0.05). The combination of TMZ with LIG or NBP markedly inhibited cell migration (p< 0.001). Western blot analysis showed that LIG, NBP, and TMZ, alone and in combination, significantly decreased the expression of Bcl-2, p-PI3K, and p-Akt, and increased the expression of Bax.

Conclusion

Both LIG and NBP exert anti-glioma effects on their own through the PI3K/Akt pathway and enhance TMZ-mediated anti-glioma efficiency via the same pathway.

USP35 promotes HCC development by stabilizing ABHD17C and activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

S-palmitoylation is a reversible protein lipidation that controls the subcellular localization and function of targeted proteins, including oncogenes such as N-RAS. The depalmitoylation enzyme family ABHD17s can remove the S-palmitoylation from N-RAS to facilitate cancer development. We previously showed that ABHD17C has oncogenic roles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells, and its mRNA stability is controlled by miR-145-5p. However, it is still unclear whether ABHD17C is regulated at the post-translational level. In the present study, we identified multiple ubiquitin-specific proteases (USPs) that can stabilize ABHD17C by inhibiting the ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated degradation. Among them, USP35 is the most potent stabilizer of ABHD17C. We found a positive correlation between the elevated expression levels of USP35 and ABHD17C, together with their association with increased PI3K/AKT pathway activity in HCCs. USP35 knockdown caused decreased ABHD17C protein level, impaired PI3K/AKT pathway, reduced proliferation, cell cycle arrest, increased apoptosis, and mitigated migration and invasion. USP35 can interact with and stabilize ABHD17C by inhibiting its ubiquitination. Overexpression of ABHD17C can rescue the defects caused by USP35 knockdown in HCC cells. In support of these in vitro observations, xenograft assay data also showed that USP35 deficiency repressed HCC development in vivo, characterized by reduced proliferation and disrupted PI3K/AKT signaling. Together, these findings demonstrate that USP35 may promote HCC development by stabilization of ABHD17C and activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway.

Impact of tumor suppressor genes inactivation on the multidrug resistance phenotype of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

The response of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) to pharmacological treatments is unsatisfactory and heterogeneous. Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) by genetic and epigenetic events is frequent in HCC. This study aimed at investigating the impact of frequently altered TSGs on HCC chemoresistance. TSG alterations were screened by in silico analysis of TCGA-LIHC database, and their relationship with survival was investigated. These TSGs were silenced in HCC-derived cell lines using CRISPR/Cas9. TLDA was used to determine the expression of a panel of 94 genes involved in the resistome. Drug sensitivity, cell proliferation, colony formation and cell migration were assessed. The in silico study revealed the down-regulation of frequently inactivated TSGs in HCC (ARID1A, PTEN, CDH1, and the target of p53, CDKN1A). The presence of TP53 and ARID1A variants and the low expression of PTEN and CDH1 correlated with a worse prognosis of HCC patients. In PLC/PRF/5 cells, ARID1A knockout (ARID1AKO) induced increased sensitivity to cisplatin, doxorubicin, and cabozantinib, without affecting other characteristics of malignancy. PTENKO and E-CadKO showed minimal changes in malignancy, resistome, and drug response. In p53KO HepG2 cells, enhanced malignant properties and higher resistance to cisplatin, doxorubicin, sorafenib, and regorafenib were found. This was associated with changes in the resistome. In conclusion, the altered expression and function of several TSGs are involved in the heterogeneity of HCC chemoresistance and other features of malignancy, contributing to the poor prognosis of these patients. Individual identification of pharmacological vulnerabilities is required to select the most appropriate treatment for each patient.

High expression of ENPP2 is an independent predictor of poor prognosis in liver cancer

Ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 2 (ENPP2) has been identified as a potential biomarker in lung and prostate cancers; however, its expression and clinical relevance in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain incompletely understood. This study comprehensively assessed ENPP2 expression in pan-cancer using bioinformatics. We analyzed the expression of ENPP2 mRNA in primary liver cancer and adjacent tissues of patients with HCC using data from the TCGA database. Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier methods were used to identify clinicopathological factors associated with survival, and the diagnostic value of ENPP2 expression was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. We also validated our findings by performing real-time PCR on clinical liver cancer samples. Furthermore, we conducted gene set enrichment analysis using the Cancer Genome Atlas dataset to gain additional insights into the biological significance of ENPP2 in HCC. High ENPP2 expression in HCC patients is associated with gender and clinical stage, and is a significant prognostic factor for worse outcomes. ENPP2 expression is an independent risk factor for progression-free and disease-specific survival in both cohorts, suggesting its potential as an HCC biomarker. ENPP2's diagnostic value in HCC patients was confirmed by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, which was 0.806. real-time PCR analysis validated the higher expression of ENPP2 in clinical liver cancer tissues. Gene set enrichment analysis identified pathways enriched in HCC patients with high ENPP2 expression, including those related to the cell cycle, MTOR and T cell receptor signaling, and phosphatidylinositol signaling systems. We have demonstrated that ENPP2 is highly expressed in HCC and is a potential independent molecular marker for the diagnosis and prognosis of HCC.

Regulatory role of miRNAs on Wnt/β-catenin signaling in tumorigenesis of glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is one of the most aggressive tumors in the brain with high mortality worldwide. Despite recent advances in therapeutic strategies, the survival rate remains low in patients with GBM. The pathogenesis of GBM is a very complicated process involving various genetic mutations affecting several oncogenic signaling pathways like Wnt/β-catenin axis. Overactivation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is associated with decreased survival and poor prognosis in patients with GBM. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) were shown to play important roles in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis by modulating the expression of their target genes. Aberrant expression of miRNAs were reported in various human malignancies including GBM, breast, colorectal, liver, and prostate cancers, but little is known about their cellular mechanisms. Therefore, recognition of the expression profile and regulatory effects of miRNAs on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway may offer a novel approach for the classification, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of patients with GBM. This review summarizes previous data on the modulatory role of miRNAs on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway implicated in tumorigenesis of GBM.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of 1-styrenyl isoquinoline derivatives for anti-hepatocellular carcinoma activity and effect on mitochondria

In this study, 18 derivatives of 1-styrene-isoquinoline were designed and synthesized from resveratrol and isoquinoline. The IC₅₀ of compound 1c against Huh7 and SK-Hep-1 cells were 2.52 μM and 4.20 μM, respectively. Mice were treated with 650 mg/kg compound 1c, and the survival status of mice was good. Further studies showed that compound 1c could inhibit cell proliferation by arresting the cell cycle in the G2/M phase, induce cell apoptosis, and inhibit cell migration and invasion by regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). It is worth noting that numbers of studies have pointed that resveratrol can trigger mitochondrial apoptosis to induce apoptosis of cancer cells. Therefore, we investigated the mechanism of compound 1c induced apoptosis of Huh7 and SK-Hep-1 cells. The results indicated that compound 1c could regulate the expression of proteins which are related to mitochondrial apoptosis pathway and inhibit the phosphorylation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. In addition, compound 1c could inhibit the growth of Huh7-xenografts, and perform a tumor inhibitory rate of 41.44% when administered 30 mg/kg once a day. This work provides a potential anti-hepatocellular carcinoma compound that warrants further investigation.

Pathogenesis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: The Interplay of Apoptosis and Autophagy

The pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a multifactorial process that has not yet been fully investigated. Autophagy and apoptosis are two important cellular pathways that are critical for cell survival or death. The balance between apoptosis and autophagy regulates liver cell turnover and maintains intracellular homeostasis. However, the balance is often dysregulated in many cancers, including HCC. Autophagy and apoptosis pathways may be either independent or parallel or one may influence the other. Autophagy may either inhibit or promote apoptosis, thus regulating the fate of the liver cancer cells. In this review, a concise overview of the pathogenesis of HCC is presented, with emphasis on new developments, including the role of endoplasmic reticulum stress, the implication of microRNAs and the role of gut microbiota. The characteristics of HCC associated with a specific liver disease are also described and a brief description of autophagy and apoptosis is provided. The role of autophagy and apoptosis in the initiation, progress and metastatic potential is reviewed and the experimental evidence indicating an interplay between the two is extensively analyzed. The role of ferroptosis, a recently described specific pathway of regulated cell death, is presented. Finally, the potential therapeutic implications of autophagy and apoptosis in drug resistance are examined.

Pegylated interferon therapy-related microRNA-6126 downregulates sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide expression in hepatocytes

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is one of the most serious global health problems. Our previous data using an in vitro assay revealed that miR-6126 suppressed the extracellular HBs antigen level, suggesting that miR-6126 had potential to suppress viral activity of HBV. In the current study, we aimed to clarify whether miR-6126 downregulated the expression level of sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP), a host cell receptor required for HBV entry. In brief, HepG2-NTCP cells were utilized to evaluate the expression level of NTCP and the PreS1 attachment to NTCP after transfection with miR-6126. The protein expression level of NTCP was evaluated using Western blot analysis and immunostaining. In addition to HepG2-NTCP cells, PXB cells were also utilized to validate inhibitory effect of miR-6126 on PreS1 attachment. The HBs antigen level in the culture supernatant was measured to evaluate reduction of HBV entry into hepatocytes. The stability of NTCP mRNA was evaluated to ascertain the cause of the downregulation of NTCP mRNA. The expression profile of messenger RNAs was evaluated using next-generation sequencing to search for direct targets of miR-6126. Consequently, transfection of miR-6126 decreased the NTCP expression level in HepG2-NTCP cells. Attachment of the PreS1 probe on the cell surface decreased in HepG2-NTCP cells and PXB cells, primary human hepatocytes. HBs antigen level in the culture supernatant also declined in PXB cells. Stability of NTCP mRNA was reduced by miR-6126 transfection in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, miR-6126 downregulated the expression of NTCP mRNA, which contributed to the inhibition of HBV entry into hepatocytes exerted by miR-6126.

α2,6-Sialylation promotes hepatocellular carcinoma cells migration and invasion via enhancement of nSmase2-mediated exosomal miRNA sorting

Exosomes have a critical role in the intercellular communication and metastatic progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Recently, our group showed that α2, 6-sialylation played an important role in the proliferation- and migration-promoting effects of cancer-derived exosomes. However, the molecular basis remains elusive. In this study, the mechanism of α2, 6-sialylation-mediated specific microRNAs (miRNA) sorting into exosomes was illustrated. We performed miRNA profiling analysis to compare exosomes from HCC cell lines that differ only in α2, 6-sialylation status. A total of 388 differentially distributed miRNAs were identified in wild-type and β-galactoside α2, 6-sialyltransferase I (ST6Gal-I) knockdown MHCC-97H cells-derived exosomes. Neutral sphingomyelinase-2 (nSmase2), an important regulator mediating the sorting of exosomal miRNAs, was found to be a target of ST6Gal-I. The reduction of α2, 6-sialylation could impair the activity of nSmase2, as well as the nSmase2-dependent exosomal miRNAs sorting. This α2,6-sialylation-dependent sorting exerted an augmentation of motility on recipient HCC cells. Our data further demonstrated that α2,6-sialylation-mediated sorting of exosomal miR-100-5p promoted the migration and invasion of recipient HepG2 cells via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. The cellular metastasis-related gene CLDN11 was confirmed as a direct target of exosomal miR-100-5p, which elevated the mobility of recipient HCC cells. In conclusion, our results showed that α2,6-sialylation modulates nSmase2-dependent exosomal miRNAs sorting and promotes HCC progression.

Pathogenesis and Current Treatment Strategies of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most frequent liver cancer with high lethality and low five-year survival rates leading to a substantial worldwide burden for healthcare systems. HCC initiation and progression are favored by different etiological risk factors including hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, non-/and alcoholic fatty liver disease (N/AFLD), and tobacco smoking. In molecular pathogenesis, endogenous alteration in genetics (TP53, TERT, CTNNB1, etc.), epigenetics (DNA-methylation, miRNA, lncRNA, etc.), and dysregulation of key signaling pathways (Wnt/β-catenin, JAK/STAT, etc.) strongly contribute to the development of HCC. The multitude and complexity of different pathomechanisms also reflect the difficulties in tailored medical therapy of HCC. Treatment options for HCC are strictly dependent on tumor staging and liver function, which are structured by the updated Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer classification system. Surgical resection, local ablative techniques, and liver transplantation are valid and curative therapeutic options for early tumor stages. For multifocal and metastatic diseases, systemic therapy is recommended. While Sorafenib had been the standalone HCC first-line therapy for decades, recent developments had led to the approval of new treatment options as first-line as well as second-line treatment. Anti-PD-L1 directed combination therapies either with anti-VEGF directed agents or with anti-CTLA-4 active substances have been implemented as the new treatment standard in the first-line setting. However, data from clinical trials indicate different responses on specific therapeutic regimens depending on the underlying pathogenesis of hepatocellular cancer. Therefore, histopathological examinations have been re-emphasized by current international clinical guidelines in addition to the standardized radiological diagnosis using contrast-enhanced cross-sectional imaging. In this review, we emphasize the current knowledge on molecular pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma. On this occasion, the treatment sequences for early and advanced tumor stages according to the recently updated Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer classification system and the current algorithm of systemic therapy (first-, second-, and third-line treatment) are summarized. Furthermore, we discuss novel precautional and pre-therapeutic approaches including therapeutic vaccination, adoptive cell transfer, locoregional therapy enhancement, and non-coding RNA-based therapy as promising treatment options. These novel treatments may prolong overall survival rates in regard with quality of life and liver function as mainstay of HCC therapy.

Down-regulation of MSMO1 promotes the development and progression of pancreatic cancer

Background: Methylsterol monooxygenase 1 (MSMO1), as a completely unique tumor biomarker, plays a vital role in the malignant progression of various cancer. Until now, the potential function and pathway of MSMO1 in the development of pancreatic cancer (PC) has not been explored yet, to our knowledge. Methods: We systematically explored the detail function of MSMO1 in Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cell proliferation of PC in vitro and in vivo. Results: MSMO1 expression was much lower in PC tissues than that in paired normal pancreas. MSMO1 positive expression was negatively associated with T stage, lymph node metastasis and vascular permeation of PC patients. Meanwhile, positive MSMO1 expression indicated a significantly better prognosis and an independent favorable prognostic factor. MSMO1 silencing promoted cell invasion and migration via activating EMT and PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway [p-PI3K (Tyr458), p-AKT (Ser473) and p-mTOR (Ser2448)] in Capan-2, Panc-1 and SW1990 cells. In vivo, subcutaneous tumor size was enhanced by MSMO1 silencing following with the consistent change of EMT and PI3K/AKT signaling shown in vitro. The motivation of EMT and PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway was also demonstrated in MSMO1 silencing mouse PANC02 cells. Conclusion: Down-regulation of MSMO1 in PC was associated with advanced progression and poor prognosis of PC patients. MSMO1 acts as a tumor suppressor via inhibiting the aggressive malignant biology of PC accompanying with regulating EMT and PI3K/AKT signaling.

MicroRNA-mediated regulation of key signaling pathways in hepatocellular carcinoma: A mechanistic insight

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer. The molecular pathogenesis of HCC varies due to the different etiologies and genotoxic insults. The development of HCC is characterized by complex interactions between several etiological factors that result in genetic and epigenetic changes in proto-onco and/or tumor suppressor genes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that also can act as oncomiRs or tumor suppressors regulating the expression of cancer-associated genes post-transcriptionally. Studies revealed that several microRNAs are directly or indirectly involved in cellular signaling, and dysregulation of those miRNAs in the body fluids or tissues potentially affects key signaling pathways resulting in carcinogenesis. Therefore, in this mini-review, we discussed recent progress in microRNA-mediated regulation of crucial signaling networks during HCC development, concentrating on the most relevant ones such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, Hippo-YAP/TAZ, and Wnt/β-catenin, which might open new avenues in HCC management.

Upregulation of miR-520c-3p via hepatitis B virus drives hepatocellular migration and invasion by the PTEN/AKT/NF-κB axis

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major risk factor for the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). It has been reported that viral infection can interfere with the expression of cellular microRNA (miRNA) to affect oncogenesis. In this study, we showed that miR-520c-3p was upregulated in liver tumor specimens, and we revealed that HBV infection enhanced the expression of miR-520c-3p through the interaction of viral protein HBV X protein (HBx) with transcription factor CREB1. We further showed that miR-520c-3p induced by HBV transfection/infection caused epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Using the miRNA target prediction database miRBase and luciferase reporter assays, we identified PTEN as a novel target gene of miR-520c-3p and miR-520c-3p directly targeted PTEN’s 3′-untranslated region. Moreover, we discovered that HBV promoted EMT via the miR-520c-3p-PTEN to activate AKT-NFκB signaling pathway, leading to increased HCC migration and invasion. Importantly, miR-520c-3p antagomir significantly represses invasiveness in HBx-induced hepatocellular xenograft models. Our findings indicate that miR-520c-3p is a novel regulator of HBV and plays an important role in HCC progression. It may serve as a new biomarker and molecular therapeutic target for HBV patients.

Involvement of microRNAs and their potential diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic role in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for 85%-90% of primary liver cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by targeting the 3'UTR of mRNA. Abnormal expression and regulation of miRNAs are involved in the occurrence and progression of HCC, and miRNAs can also play a role in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC as oncogenes or tumor suppressors.

METHODS

In the past decades, a large number of studies have shown that miRNAs play an essential regulatory role in HCC and have potential as biomarkers for HCC. We reviewed the literature to summarize these studies.

RESULTS

By reviewing the literature, we retrospected the roles of miRNAs in the development, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of HCC, and put forward prospects for the further research on miRNAs in the precision treatment of HCC.

CONCLUSION

MicroRNAs are important regulators and biomarkers in the occurrence, progression, outcome, and treatment of HCC, and can provide new targets and strategies for improving the therapeutic effect of HCC.

Small biomarkers with massive impacts: PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling and microRNA crosstalk regulate nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is one of the most common malignant tumours of the head and neck in Southeast Asia and southern China. The Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway is involved in processes related to tumour initiation/progression, such as proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and drug resistance, and is closely related to the clinicopathological features of NPC. In addition, key genes involved in the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway undergo many changes in NPC. More interestingly, a growing body of evidence suggests an interaction between this signalling pathway and microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of small noncoding RNAs. Therefore, in this review, we discuss the interactions between key components of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signalling pathway and various miRNAs and their importance in NPC pathology and explore potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Investigations of nitazoxanide molecular targets and pathways for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma using network pharmacology and molecular docking

Nitazoxanide has been investigated for colorectal cancer and breast cancer. However, its molecular targets and pathways have not yet been explored for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment. Utilizing a network pharmacology approach, nitazoxanide’s potential targets and molecular pathways for HCC treatment were investigated. HCC targets were extracted from the GeneCards database. Potential targets of nitazoxanide were predicted using Swiss Target Prediction and Super Pred. Intersecting targets were analyzed with VENNY online tool. Using Cytoscape, a protein-protein interaction (PPI), cluster, and core targets-pathways networks were constructed. Using the Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID), gene ontology (GO), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were conducted. The nitazoxanide was molecularly docked with anti-HCC core targets by employing Auto Dock Vina. A total of 168 potential targets of nitazoxanide, 13,415 HCC-related targets, and 153 intersecting targets were identified. The top eight anti-HCC core targets were identified: SRC, EGFR, CASP3, MMP9, mTOR, HIF1A, ERBB2, and PPARG. GO enrichment analysis showed that nitazoxanide might have anti-HCC effects by affecting gene targets involved in multiple biological processes (BP) (protein phosphorylation, transmembrane receptor protein tyrosine kinase (RTKs) signaling pathway, positive regulation of MAP kinase activity, etc.). KEGG pathways and core targets-pathways network analysis indicated that pathways in cancer and proteoglycans in cancer are two key pathways that significantly contribute to the anti-HCC effects of nitazoxanide. Results of molecular docking demonstrated the potential for active interaction between the top eight anti-HCC core targets and nitazoxanide. Our research offers a theoretical basis for the notion that nitazoxanide may have distinct therapeutic effects in HCC, and the identified pharmacological targets and pathways might function as biomarkers for HCC therapy.

Decrypting a path based approach for identifying the interplay between PI3K and GSK3 signaling cascade from the perspective of cancer

Cancer is one of those leading diseases worldwide, which takes millions of lives every year. Researchers are continuously looking for specific approaches to eradicate the deadly disease, ensuring minimal adverse effects along with more therapeutic significance. Targeting of different aberrantly regulated signaling pathways, involved in cancer, is surely one of the revolutionary chemotherapeutic approach. In this instance, GSK3 and PI3K signaling cascades are considered as important role player for both the oncogenic activation and inactivation which further leads to cancer proliferation and metastasis. In this review, we have discussed the potential role of GSK3 and PI3K signaling in cancer, and we further established the crosstalk between PI3K and GSK3 signaling, through showcasing their cross activation, cross inhibition and convergence pathways in association with cancer. We also exhibited the effect of GSK3 on the efficacy of PI3K inhibitors to overcome the drug resistance and preventing the cell proliferation, metastasis in a combinatorial way with GSK3 inhibitors for a better treatment strategy in clinical settings.

The biological clock gene PER1 affects the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma by altering the circadian rhythms of cell proliferation and apoptosis

Circadian rhythms expressed by the biological clock gene PER1 are aberrantly altered in a variety of tumor cells, including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC); however, their functions and mechanisms are unclear. Here, we found that compared with normal oral epithelial HOK cells, OSCC cells showed altered circadian rhythm characteristics of proliferation, apoptosis and PER1 expression, exhibiting abnormal changes in the 3 dimensions of mesor, amplitude and acrophase. It was further found that in OSCC cells overexpressing PER1 (OE-PER1-SCC15), the circadian rhythm characteristics of cell proliferation, apoptosis, p-AKT and p-mTOR expression were abnormally altered. After adding the AKT activator SC79 to OE-PER1-SCC15 cells, the circadian rhythm characteristics of cell proliferation, apoptosis and p-AKT and p-mTOR expression were altered in opposite ways. In vivo tumorigenic assays demonstrated that overexpression of PER1 inhibited OSCC growth. The circadian rhythm characteristics of cell proliferation and apoptosis, PER1, p-AKT and p-mTOR expression were altered similarly to those observed in vitro. Our findings demonstrate for the first time that PER1 regulates the circadian rhythm of OSCC cell proliferation and apoptosis by altering the circadian rhythm characteristics of the AKT/mTOR pathway. The results have the potential to provide a new strategy for circadian rhythm-based treatment of OSCC.

Network-Pharmacology-Based Study on Active Phytochemicals and Molecular Mechanism of Cnidium monnieri in Treating Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignancy with a high mortality rate globally. For thousands of years, Cnidium monnieri has been used to treat human ailments and is regarded as a veritable treasure trove for drug discovery. This study has investigated the key active phytochemicals and molecular mechanisms of Cnidium monnieri implicated in curing HCC. We utilized the TCMSP database to collect data on the phytochemicals of Cnidium monnieri. The SwissTargetPrediction website tool was used to predict the targets of phytochemicals of Cnidium monnieri. HCC-related genes were retrieved from OncoDB.HCC and Liverome, two liver-cancer-related databases. Using the DAVID bioinformatic website tool, Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG enrichment analysis were performed on the intersecting targets of HCC-related genes and active phytochemicals in Cnidium monnieri. A network of active phytochemicals and anti-HCC targets was constructed and analyzed using Cytoscape software. Molecular docking of key active phytochemicals was performed with anti-HCC targets using AutoDock Vina (version 1.2.0.). We identified 19 active phytochemicals in Cnidium monnieri, 532 potential targets of these phytochemicals, and 566 HCC-related genes. Results of GO enrichment indicated that Cnidium monnieri might be implicated in affecting gene targets involved in multiple biological processes, such as protein phosphorylation, negative regulation of the apoptotic process, which could be attributed to its anti-HCC effects. KEGG pathway analyses indicated that the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway, pathways in cancer, proteoglycans in cancer, the TNF signaling pathway, VEGF signaling pathway, ErbB signaling pathway, and EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance are the main pathways implicated in the anti-HCC effects of Cnidium monnieri. Molecular docking analyses showed that key active phytochemicals of Cnidium monnieri, such as ar-curcumene, diosmetin, and (E)-2,3-bis(2-keto-7-methoxy-chromen-8-yl)acrolein, can bind to core therapeutic targets EGFR, CASP3, ESR1, MAPK3, CCND1, and ERBB2. The results of the present study offer clues for further investigation of the anti-HCC phytochemicals and mechanisms of Cnidium monnieri and provide a basis for developing modern anti-HCC drugs based on phytochemicals in Cnidium monnieri.

PI3K/AKT/mTOR Pathway-Associated Genes Reveal a Putative Prognostic Signature Correlated with Immune Infiltration in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

The dysregulated PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway acts as the main regulator of tumorigenesis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Aim

Here, we identify the prognostic significance of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway-associated genes (PAGs) as well as their putative signature based on PAGs in an HCC patient's cohort.

Methods

The transcriptomic data and clinical feature sets were queried to extract the putative prognostic signature.

Results

We identified nine PAGs with different expressions. GO and KEGG indicated that these differentially expressed genes were associated with various carcinogenic pathways. Based on the signature-computed median risk score, we categorized the patients into groups of low risk and high risk. The survival time for the low-risk group is longer than that of the high-risk group in Kaplan-Meier (KM) curves. The prognostic value of risk score (ROC = 0.736) of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves performed better in comparison to that of other clinicopathological features. In both the GEO database and ICGC database, these outcomes were verified. The predictions of the overall survival rates in HCC patients of 1 year, 3 years, and 5 years can be obtained separately from the nomogram. The risk score was associated with the immune infiltrations of CD8 T cells, activated CD4 memory T cells, and follicular helper T cells, and the expression of immune checkpoints (PD-1, TIGIT, TIM-3, BTLA, LAG-3, and CTLA4) was positively relevant to the risk score. The sensitivity to several chemotherapeutic drugs can also be revealed by the signature. CDK1, PITX2, PRKAA2, and SFN were all upregulated in the tumor tissue of clinical samples.

Conclusion

A putative and differential dataset-validated prognostic signature on the basis of integrated bioinformatic analysis was established in our study, providing the immunotherapeutic targets as well as the personalized treatment in HCC with neoteric insight.

CRISPR/Cas9 application in cancer therapy: a pioneering genome editing tool

The progress of genetic engineering in the 1970s brought about a paradigm shift in genome editing technology. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system is a flexible means to target and modify particular DNA sequences in the genome. Several applications of CRISPR/Cas9 are presently being studied in cancer biology and oncology to provide vigorous site-specific gene editing to enhance its biological and clinical uses. CRISPR's flexibility and ease of use have enabled the prompt achievement of almost any preferred alteration with greater efficiency and lower cost than preceding modalities. Also, CRISPR/Cas9 technology has recently been applied to improve the safety and efficacy of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapies and defeat tumor cell resistance to conventional treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The current review summarizes the application of CRISPR/Cas9 in cancer therapy. We also discuss the present obstacles and contemplate future possibilities in this context.

Xihuang pills induce apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma by suppressing phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase-B/mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway

BACKGROUND

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase-B/mechanistic target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) signalling pathway is crucial for cell survival, differentiation, apoptosis and metabolism. Xihuang pills (XHP) are a traditional Chinese preparation with antitumour properties. They inhibit the growth of breast cancer, glioma, and other tumours by regulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway. However, the effects and mechanisms of action of XHP in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unclear. Regulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway effectively inhibits the progression of HCC. However, no study has focused on the XHP-associated PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway. Therefore, we hypothesized that XHP might play a role in inhibiting HCC through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway.

AIM

To confirm the effect of XHP on HCC and the possible mechanisms involved.

METHODS

The chemical constituents and active components of XHP were analysed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). Cell-based experiments and in vivo xenograft tumour experiments were utilized to evaluate the effect of XHP on HCC tumorigenesis. First, SMMC-7721 cells were incubated with different concentrations of XHP (0, 0.3125, 0.625, 1.25, and 2.5 mg/mL) for 12 h, 24 h and 48 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay, followed by an assessment of cell migration using a wound healing assay. Second, the effect of XHP on the apoptosis of SMMC-7721 cells was evaluated. SMMC-7721 cells were stained with fluorescein isothiocyanate and annexin V/propidium iodide. The number of apoptotic cells and cell cycle distribution were measured using flow cytometry. The cleaved protein and mRNA expression levels of caspase-3 and caspase-9 were detected using Western blotting and quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), respectively. Third, Western blotting and RT–qPCR were performed to confirm the effects of XHP on the protein and mRNA expression of components of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway. Finally, the effects of XHP on the tumorigenesis of subcutaneous hepatocellular tumours in nude mice were assessed.

RESULTS

The following 12 compounds were identified in XHP using high-resolution mass spectrometry: Valine, 4-gingerol, myrrhone, ricinoleic acid, glycocholic acid, curzerenone, 11-keto-β-boswellic acid, oleic acid, germacrone, 3-acetyl-9,11-dehydro-β-boswellic acid, 5β-androstane-3,17-dione, and 3-acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid. The cell viability assay results showed that treatment with 0.625 mg/mL XHP extract decreased HCC cell viability after 12 h, and the effects were dose- and time-dependent. The results of the cell scratch assay showed that the migration of HCC cells was significantly inhibited in a time-dependent manner by the administration of XHP extract (0.625 mg/mL). Moreover, XHP significantly inhibited cell migration and resulted in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Furthermore, XHP downregulated the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway, which activated apoptosis executioner proteins (e.g., caspase-9 and caspase-3). The inhibitory effects of XHP on HCC cell growth were determined in vivo by analysing the tumour xenograft volumes and weights.

CONCLUSION

XHP inhibited HCC cell growth and migration by stimulating apoptosis via the downregulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway, followed by the activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3. Our findings clarified that the antitumour effects of XHP on HCC cells are mediated by the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway, revealing that XHP may be a potential complementary therapy for HCC.

Genetic Polymorphisms in microRNA Genes Targeting PI3K/Akt Signal Pathway Modulate Cervical Cancer Susceptibility in a Chinese Population

Polymorphisms in microRNA (miRNA) genes could influence the expression of miRNAs that regulate the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway and play crucial roles in cancer susceptibility. To investigate the association of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in miRNA genes of PI3K/Akt with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and cervical cancer (CC), nine SNPs located in miRNA genes were selected for genotyping, and the association of these SNPs with CIN and CC risk was evaluated. A total of 1,402 participants were enrolled in the current study, including 698 healthy individuals in the control group, 431 patients with CC, and 273 patients with CIN. Nine SNPs in miRNA genes (rs107822 in miR-219a, rs10877887 in let-7i, rs2292832 in miR-149, rs353293 in miR-143, rs3746444 in miR-499, rs3803808 in miR-132, rs4078756 in miR-10b, rs629367 in let-7a, and rs7372209 in miR-26a) were genotyped using MassArray, and the association of these SNPs with CIN and CC were analysed. The results showed that the frequencies of rs107822 in miR-219a and rs2292832 in miR-149 were significantly different between the control and CC groups (p &lt; 0.005). The C allele of rs107822 in miR-219a was associated with an increased risk of CC (OR = 1.29, 95%CI:1.09–1.54) whereas the C allele of rs2292832 in miR-149 was associated with a decreased risk of CC (OR = 0.77, 95%CI:0.64–0.92). The results of inheritance model analysis showed that the best-fit inheritance models for rs107822 and rs2292832 were log-additive. The 2CC + CT genotype of rs107822 could be a risk factor for CC when compared with the TT genotype (OR = 1.28, 95%CI:1.08–1.51). The 2CC + CT genotype of rs2292832 could be a protective factor against CC when compared with the TT genotype (OR = 0.76, 95%CI:0.64–0.92). However, no association of these SNPs with CIN was found in the current study. Our results suggest that rs107822 in the promoter region of miR-219a and rs2292832 in pre-miR-149 region are associated with the risk of CC.

Activating transcription factor 2 promotes the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma by inducing the activation of the WHSC1-mediated TOP2A/PI3K/AKT axis

Activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2) is a tumor driver gene implicated in several human malignancies. This study aimed to determine the roles of ATF2 and its related molecules in the tumorigenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). According to the Pan-cancer bioinformatics system, ATF2 is highly expressed in HCC. An increase in the expression of ATF2 was identified in clinically collected tumor tissues and procured HCC cells. The silencing of ATF2 reduced the viability, colony formation, invasion, and death resistance of HepG2 and SNU-398 cells in vitro. ATF2 promoted the transcription of Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome candidate 1 (WHSC1) by binding to its promoter. WHSC1 further increased the expression of DNA topoisomerase II alpha (TOP2A) in HCC by inducing the dimethylation of histone H3 lysine 36 (H3K36me2) in the TOP2A promoter region. TOP2A activated the oncogenic PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Further overexpression of WHSC1 activated the TOP2A/PI3K/AKT axis and restored the malignant behaviors of HCC cells suppressed by ATF2 silencing in vitro. In summary, this study demonstrated that, depending on WHSC1, ATF2 can activate the TOP2A/PI3K/AKT signaling cascade to promote the tumorigenesis of HCC. ATF2, WHSC1, and TOP2A may serve as potential targets in managing HCC.

miRNAs inspirations in hepatocellular carcinoma: Detrimental and favorable aspects of key performers

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. HCC initiation, progression, and therapy failure are all influenced by various variables, including microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs are short non-coding RNA sequences that modulate target mRNA expression by deteriorating or repressing translation. miRNAs play an imperative role in HCC pathogenesis by triggering the induction of cancer stem cells (CSCs) and their proliferation, while also delaying apoptosis, sustaining the cell cycle, and inspiring angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Additionally, miRNAs modulate crucial HCC-related molecular pathways such as the p53 pathway, the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, VEGFR2, and PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway. Consequently, the goal of this review was to give an up-to-date overview of oncogenic and tumor suppressor (TS) miRNAs, as well as their potential significance in HCC pathogenesis and treatment responses, highlighting their underpinning molecular pathways in HCC initiation and progression. Similarly, the biological importance and clinical application of miRNAs in HCC are summarized.

MicroRNA-148a Inhibits Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Growth via Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition and PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathways by Targeting Death Receptor-5

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of microRNA-148a (miR-148a) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) metastasis and explore its potential mechanism in HCC cells. Expression levels of miR-148a were measured using qRT-PCR in 120 HCC tissue samples and two HCC cell lines. Migration and invasion assays were used to determine the role of miR-148a in HCC cells. Flow cytometry was used to access the effect of miR-148a on cell cycle of HCC cells. Western blot was performed to analyze the effect of miR-148a on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways in HCC cells. Luciferase reporter assay was conducted to explore the downstream targets and biological function of miR-148a in HCC cells. The results showed that level of miR-148a was significantly downregulated in both HCC tissue and plasma samples in HCC patients. A higher level of miR-148a was positively correlated with better survival time and prognosis of HCC patients. Transfection of miR-148a inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of HCC cell lines. Transfection of miR-148a arrested HCC cells at S phase and promoted apoptosis of HCC cells. Death receptor-5 (DR-5) was identified as a direct target of miR-148a in HCC cell lines. Western blot and qRT-PCR analyses showed that miR-148a upregulated EMT and downregulated PI3K/AKT signaling pathways in HCC cell lines. In conclusion, data in the current study indicate that miR-148a inhibits HCC cells growth via downregulation of EMT and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways by targeting death receptor. These data suggest that miR-148a may serve as a therapeutic target for HCC cancer therapy in the future.

Antitumor effects ofrhamnazinon sorafenib-treated human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines via modulation of VEGF signalingand PI3K/NF-κBp38/caspase-3 axes cross talk

AIMS

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common livermalignancy,characterized by dysregulation of multiple oncogenicsignaling pathways, including the VEGF/PI3K/NF-κBandp38 MAPKaxes.Sorafenib is a multikinase inhibitor that targetsRaf kinases and receptor tyrosine kinases,which mediateHCC angiogenesis.Rhamnazinis a VEGFR2 signaling inhibitor, whichinhibits the phosphorylation of Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2(VEGFR2) and its downstream signaling regulators. This study was designed toassess the antitumor effects of rhamnazinon human HCC cell lines treated with sorafenib, and to investigate the molecular mechanisms mediating this effect.

MAIN METHODS

HepG2 and HUH-7 HCC cell lines were used.Cell viability was assessed by MTT assay. NF-κB, p38MAPK, VEGF, VEGFR2, PI3K, and Ki67 levels were assessedusing ELISA. Caspase-3 activity was measuredcolorimetrically. VEGFR2 expression was detected by RT-PCR.

KEY FINDINGS

MTT assay revealed that the sorafenib-rhamnazin combination showed significant cytotoxicity compared with sorafenib or rhamnazin alone. The sorafenib-rhamnazin combination also showed significant inhibition of the angiogenicVEGF/VEGFR2/PI3K/NF-κBsignaling axis associated with significant upregulation of the apoptotic p38MAPK/caspase-3 axis and inhibition of Ki67, a proliferation marker in HepG2 and HUH-7 cells.

SIGNIFICANCE

Rhamnazin potentiates the chemotherapeutic effect of sorafenibvia modulation ofthe VEGF/PI3K/NF-κBsignaling axis, downregulation of VEGFR2 expression, and upregulation of the p38MAPK/caspase-3 axisin human HCC cell lines.

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) Signaling in Cancer-A Betrayal Within

A ubiquitously expressed cytokine, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) plays a significant role in various ongoing cellular mechanisms. The gain or loss-of-function of TGF-β and its downstream mediators could lead to a plethora of diseases includes tumorigenesis. Specifically, at the early onset of malignancy TGF-β act as tumour suppressor and plays a key role in clearing malignant cells by reducing the cellular proliferation and differentiation thus triggers the process of apoptosis. Subsequently, TGF-β at an advanced stage of malignancy promotes tumorigenesis by augmenting cellular transformation, epithelial-mesenchymal-transition invasion, and metastasis. Besides playing the dual roles, depending upon the stage of malignancy, TGF-β also regulates cell fate through immune and stroma components. This oscillatory role of TGF-β to fight against cancer or act as a traitor to collaborate and crosstalk with other tumorigenic signaling pathways and its betrayal within the cell depends upon the cellular context. Therefore, the current review highlights and understands the dual role of TGF-β under different cellular conditions and its crosstalk with other signaling pathways in modulating cell fate.

Venetoclax-Resistant MV4-11 Leukemic Cells Activate PI3K/AKT Pathway for Metabolic Reprogramming and Redox Adaptation for Survival

Venetoclax (ABT199) is a selective B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) inhibitor. The US FDA recently approved it to be used in combination with low-dose cytarabine or hypomethylating agents in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or elderly patients non-eligible for chemotherapy. However, acquiring resistance to venetoclax in AML patients is the primary cause of treatment failure. To understand the molecular mechanisms inherent in the resistance to BCL-2 inhibitors, we generated a venetoclax-resistant cell line model and assessed the consequences of this resistance on its metabolic pathways. Untargeted metabolomics data displayed a notable impact of resistance on the PI3K/AKT pathway, the Warburg effect, glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and redox metabolism. The resistant cells showed increased NADPH and reduced glutathione levels, switching their energy metabolism towards glycolysis. PI3K/AKT pathway inhibition shifted resistant cells towards oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Our results provide a metabolic map of resistant cells that can be used to design novel metabolic targets to challenge venetoclax resistance in AML.

Ligand-activated PPARδ expression promotes hepatocellular carcinoma progression by regulating the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway

Background

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-beta/delta (PPARδ) was considered as the key regulator involved in the evolution of various tumors. Given that PPARδ potential role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is still obscure, we comprehensively assessed its expression pattern, prognosis, functions and correlation with tumor microenvironment in HCC using public database data and in vitro studies.

Methods

Transcriptional data and clinical data in the TCGA and GEO database were analyzed in R software. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), western blotting and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the expression level of related RNA and proteins. The malignant biological characteristics were explored by cell counting Kit-8 (CCK8), 5-Ethynyl-2ʹ-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay and wound healing assay.

Results

Our results illustrated that PPARδ expression was significantly higher in HCC tissues and HCC cell lines. Elevated expression of PPARδ suggested poor clinical staging and prognosis in HCC. Ligand-activated PPARδ expression promoted the proliferation and invasion of HCC cells via PDK1/AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway. The expression of PPARδ was closely related to the HCC tumor microenvironment.

Conclusions

PPARδ plays an important part in HCC progression, penetrating investigation of the related regulatory mechanism may shed light upon further biological and pharmacological value.

ZNF488 Promotes the Invasion and Migration of Pancreatic Carcinoma Cells through the Akt/mTOR Pathway

OBJECTIVE

Studies have demonstrated that zinc finger protein 488 (ZNF488) is highly expressed in pancreatic carcinoma (PC), but its effect on PC and its molecular mechanism remains unclear.

METHODS

Real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was employed to detect the ZNF488 expression in PC patients' cancer tissues and cell lines. After interfering with or overexpressing ZNF488 in PANC-1 and AsPC-1 cells, respectively, the CCK-8, cell cloning, Transwell, and scratch assays were performed to detect cell proliferation, cell viability, invasion ability, and migration ability. In addition, Western blot was applied to assess the protein expression of Akt, p-Akt, mTOR, and p-mTOR in the Akt-mTOR pathway.

RESULTS

The ZNF488 expression was evidently raised in PC tissues and cell lines, and the starBase V3.0 database indicated that the higher the ZNF488 expression, the lower the survival rate of PC patients. Furthermore, we discovered that overexpressing ZNF488 can markedly promote the proliferation, invasion, and migration of PC cells. At the same time, highly expressed ZNF488 distinctly increased the p-Akt and p-mTOR expressions and the p-Akt/Akt and p-mTOR/mTOR ratios. However, after knocking down the ZNF488 expression, it had the opposite results. In addition, the Akt agonist SC79 can alleviate the effect of ZNF488 knockdown on Akt/mTOR pathway-related proteins, while Akt inhibitor AZD5363 had the opposite effect.

CONCLUSION

ZNF488 could promote the proliferation, invasion, and migration of PC cells, and its mechanism may be related to the activation of the Akt/mTOR pathway. This study demonstrated that ZNF488 could be used as a molecular target for diagnosing and treating PC.

MicroRNA-4317 suppresses the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma by targeting ZNF436-mediated PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major type of liver cancer with high mortality, which is a prevalent common cancer in the world. Aberrant miRNAs contribute to the progression and development of HCC. Currently, our study demonstrated that miR-4317 was decreased in HCC patient samples tissues and HCC cell lines, which was related to poor clinical features, including tumor size, advanced TNM stage and vascular invasion. Furthermore, we confirmed that miR-4317 suppressed cell viability, proliferation, invasion and migration through loss- and gain-of-function experiment in vitro. In addition, miR-4317 inhibited tumor growth in vivo experiment. Luciferase reporter assays confirmed that ZNF436 was a direct target of miR-4317. Restoration of ZNF436 reversed the role of miR-4317 on HCC. ZNF436 expression was increased in HCC tissues and cell lines, which was negatively correlated with miR-4317 expression. ZNF436 overexpression obviously promoted the cell proliferation, viability, invasion and migration of HCC cells. ZNF436 mediated the regulatory function of miR-4317 on PI3K/AKT pathway. Overall, our data suggest that miR-4317 is a novel tumor suppressor to suppress HCC progression through PI3K/AKT pathway by targeting ZNF436, and may serve as a prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for HCC.

Crosstalk between miRNA and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in cancer

Phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is one of the most important proliferative signaling pathways with critical undeniable function in various aspects of cancer initiation/progression, including proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. On the other hand, numerous genetic alterations in the key genes involved in the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway have been identified in multiple solid and hematological tumors. In addition, accumulating recent evidences have demonstrated a reciprocal interaction between this signaling pathway and microRNAs, a large group of small non-coding RNAs. Therefore, in this review, it was attempted to discuss about the interaction between key components of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway with various miRNAs and their importance in cancer biology.

Constitutive TDO2 expression promotes liver cancer progression by an autocrine IL-6 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Increased tryptophan (Trp) metabolism by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)/tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) represents one of the most studied pathways for immunosuppression in tumor tissues. However, the pro-tumor effects induced by Trp metabolism remain controversial.

METHODS

The paraffin sections of tumor tissues were obtained from patients with liver cancer and examined by immunohistochemical staining to investigate the role of Trp metabolic enzymes. To further confirm the pro-tumor effects induced by TDO2, we established TDO2 overexpression SMC-7721 and HepG2 liver cancer cell lines, and western blotting, cell proliferation, and colony formation were evaluated. Meanwhile, liver cancer subcutaneous mice models were established, and the tumorigenic rates of SMC-7721 cells, tumor volume and survival of bearing mice were calculated. In addition, the survival data of liver cancer patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were downloaded to analyze the effect of TDO2 expression on the survival of patients with liver cancer.

RESULTS

Here, we showed that constitutive TDO2 expression gave rise to liver cancer through upregulation of Trp metabolism. And the TDO2 expression was positively correlated with the poor prognosis in liver cancer patients. TDO2 expression in tumor cells accounted for the release of kynurenine (Kyn), which activated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) to promote liver cancer cells proliferation. Mechanistically, we found that AhR expression contributed to the secretion of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), thereby promoting tumor cells proliferation through the STAT3 and NF-kB/TIM4 signals. Interrupt of AhR signals by PDM2 revealed improved outcomes in subcutaneous tumor-bearing mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, our study showed that the TDO2/Kyn/AhR/IL-6 signaling pathway was a novel mechanism underlying the malignancy of liver cancer, and suggested that AhR signals might be a valuable therapeutic target for tumor therapy.

KIF2C promotes the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies with high mortality and morbidity rates. In recent years, HCC targeted therapy has gained increasing attention. Due to the heterogeneity and high metastasis of HCC, more effective therapeutic targets are needed. Kinesin family member 2C (KIF2C), also known as mitotic centromere-associated kinesin, is a microtubule-based motor protein which is involved in a variety of important cellular processes, such as mitosis. The effects of KIF2C on cancer progression and development have been widely studied; however, its potential effects on HCC remains unclear. In the present study, high expression of KIF2C in human HCC tissues was demonstrated using The Cancer Genome Atlas database and immunohistochemistry assays. KIF2C expression was associated with HCC prognosis, including overall survival and disease-free survival. KIF2C expression was also associated with clinical pathological characteristics including the number of tumor nodes (P=0.015) and tumor size (P=0.009). KIF2C knockdown inhibited the proliferation of HCC cells in vitro, confirmed by MTT and colony formation assays, and suppressed tumor growth in mice which was confirmed by a xenograft mouse model. Together, the results suggested that KIF2C may serve as a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of HCC.

Apoptosis Deregulation and the Development of Cancer Multi-Drug Resistance

Simple Summary

Despite recent therapeutic advances against cancer, many patients do not respond well or respond poorly, to treatment and develop resistance to more than one anti-cancer drug, a term called multi-drug resistance (MDR). One of the main factors that contribute to MDR is the deregulation of apoptosis or programmed cell death. Herein, we describe the major apoptotic pathways and discuss how pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins are modified in cancer cells to convey drug resistance. We also focus on our current understanding related to the interactions between survival and cell death pathways, as well as on mechanisms underlying the balance shift towards cancer cell growth and drug resistance. Moreover, we highlight the role of the tumor microenvironment components in blocking apoptosis in MDR tumors, and we discuss the significance and potential exploitation of epigenetic modifications for cancer treatment. Finally, we summarize the current and future therapeutic approaches for overcoming MDR.

Abstract

The ability of tumor cells to evade apoptosis is established as one of the hallmarks of cancer. The deregulation of apoptotic pathways conveys a survival advantage enabling cancer cells to develop multi-drug resistance (MDR), a complex tumor phenotype referring to concurrent resistance toward agents with different function and/or structure. Proteins implicated in the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, including the Bcl-2 superfamily and Inhibitors of Apoptosis (IAP) family members, as well as their regulator, tumor suppressor p53, have been implicated in the development of MDR in many cancer types. The PI₃K/AKT pathway is pivotal in promoting survival and proliferation and is often overactive in MDR tumors. In addition, the tumor microenvironment, particularly factors secreted by cancer-associated fibroblasts, can inhibit apoptosis in cancer cells and reduce the effectiveness of different anti-cancer drugs. In this review, we describe the main alterations that occur in apoptosis-and related pathways to promote MDR. We also summarize the main therapeutic approaches against resistant tumors, including agents targeting Bcl-2 family members, small molecule inhibitors against IAPs or AKT and agents of natural origin that may be used as monotherapy or in combination with conventional therapeutics. Finally, we highlight the potential of therapeutic exploitation of epigenetic modifications to reverse the MDR phenotype.

The Pathogenic Role of PI3K/AKT Pathway in Cancer Onset and Drug Resistance: An Updated Review

The PI3K/AKT pathway is one of the most frequently over-activated intracellular pathways in several human cancers. This pathway, acting on different downstream target proteins, contributes to the carcinogenesis, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of tumour cells. A multi-level impairment, involving mutation and genetic alteration, aberrant regulation of miRNAs sequences, and abnormal phosphorylation of cascade factors, has been found in multiple cancer types. The deregulation of this pathway counteracts common therapeutic strategies and contributes to multidrug resistance. In this review, we underline the involvement of this pathway in patho-physiological cell survival mechanisms, emphasizing its key role in the development of drug resistance. We also provide an overview of the potential inhibition strategies currently available.

CK-3, A Novel Methsulfonyl Pyridine Derivative, Suppresses Hepatocellular Carcinoma Proliferation and Invasion by Blocking the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK Pathways

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive tumor with a poor prognosis that highly expresses phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK). The PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways play a crucial role in HCC tumor formation, cell cycle, apoptosis and survival. However, no effective targeted therapies against these pathways is available, mainly due to the extensive and complex negative feedback loops between them. Here we used CK-3, a dual blocker of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK pathways, against HCC cell lines to verify its anti-tumor activity in vitro. CK-3 exhibited cytotoxic activity against HCC, as demonstrated with MTT and colony formation assays. The anti-metastatic potential of CK-3 was demonstrated with wound healing and cell invasion assays. The ability of CK-3 to block both the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK pathways was also confirmed. CK-3 induced the apoptosis of Hep3B cells, while Bel7402 cells died via mitotic catastrophe (MC). Oral administration of CK-3 also inhibited the subcutaneous growth of BEL7402 cells in nude mice. Simultaneous PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK/ERK pathway inhibition with CK-3 may be superior to single pathway monotherapies by inhibiting their feedback-regulation, and represents a potential treatment for HCC.