Mitigating resurgence of destructive behavior using the discriminative stimuli of a multiple schedule

Punishment-induced resurgence

The phenomenon of extinction-induced resurgence is well established, but there is comparatively little experimental evidence for punishment-induced resurgence. Punishment-induced resurgence can by tested by contingent shocks following the alternative response. The purpose of Experiment 1 was to test whether low-intensity shocks, that do not decrease rate of reinforcement, result in resurgence. Four rats served as subjects. Rats were exposed to three sequential conditions: (a) variable-interval (VI) 30-s food delivery for a lever press (target response); (b) VI 30-s food delivery for a nose poke (alternative response) and extinction of the lever press; (c) VI 30-s reinforcement for a nose poke with superimposed VI 60-s shock delivery. In the final condition, shocks increased gradually from 0.1 to 0.5 mA. Experiment 2 evaluated whether an abrupt introduction of a high-intensity shock would result in resurgence. Three rats served as subjects and were exposed to three sequential conditions: (a) VI 30-s food delivery for a lever press; (b) VI 30-s food delivery for a nose poke and extinction of the lever press; (c) continued VI 30-s reinforcement for a nose poke with superimposed VI 60-s 0.6 mA shock delivery. Resurgence was observed in all subjects, including in situations in which rate of responding, but not rate of reinforcement, decreased. The present study provides additional evidence for punishment-induced resurgence, but future studies are warranted to determine the extent to which punishment can produce resurgence with or without decreases in rates of reinforcement.

Examination of clinical variables affecting resurgence: A reanalysis of 46 applications

Despite the efficacy of behavioral interventions, resurgence of challenging behavior (e.g., aggression, self-injury) following successful treatment can still occur. Applied work has focused on identifying treatment-related variables thought to affect the occurrence and magnitude of resurgence. The current study describes the relation between several variables (i.e., phase duration, response rates in baseline and treatment, obtained rates of reinforcement, downshift in reinforcement step size) and resurgence in a retrospective consecutive controlled case series of 46 treatment applications for challenging behavior conducted in an inpatient setting. Only the downshift in reinforcement (e.g., schedule-thinning) step size was correlated with the magnitude of resurgence. These results are consistent with recent findings suggesting that treatment duration and other factors have inconsistent effects on resurgence of challenging behavior.

Resurgence of destructive behavior following decreases in alternative reinforcement: A prospective analysis

Basic and retrospective translational research has shown that the magnitude of resurgence is determined by the size of the decrease in alternative reinforcement, with larger decreases producing more resurgence. However, this finding has not been evaluated prospectively with a clinical population. In Experiment 1, five participants experienced a fixed progression of reinforcement schedule-thinning steps during treatment of their destructive behavior. Resurgence occurred infrequently across steps and participants, and when resurgence did occur, its clinical meaningfulness was often minimal. In Experiment 2, five new participants experienced these same schedule-thinning steps but in a counterbalanced order. Resurgence occurred most often and was generally largest with larger decreases in alternative reinforcement programmed earlier in the evaluation. Large decreases in alternative reinforcement may be more problematic clinically when they occur earlier in treatment. Whether larger transitions can be recommended in the clinic following the success of smaller ones will require additional research.

A demonstration of incorporating discriminative stimuli into an AAC device during functional communication training

Functional communication training (FCT) is an effective intervention for teaching communication responses and reducing challenging behavior. One limitation of FCT is that frequent reinforcement may be impractical or impossible in many situations. Recently, Mitteer et al. published a tutorial in the journal AAC that provided video models on how to implement an empirically supported strategy for thinning reinforcement during FCT, known as FCT with discriminative stimuli, when teaching with an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) device. However, no study has empirically evaluated the approach described in that tutorial. This paper details a case study using several single-case experimental designs to teach a non-vocal autistic adult who did not use speech to communicate requests only when reinforcement was signaled to be available by the color of the AAC icons. We demonstrated the efficacy of this approach with unique pairs of discriminative stimuli for tangible and edible items, thinning reinforcement for each stimulus class independently. We then rapidly transferred stimulus control to new icons and integrated both classes of stimuli into a single AAC grid. This first demonstration of embedding discriminative stimuli into an AAC device represents a promising advancement for individuals who do not use speech and may not readily respond to delay or denial cues.

Updated Recommendations for Reinforcement Schedule Thinning following Functional Communication Training

Schedule thinning is a necessary treatment procedure following the acquisition of a communication response during functional communication training. In this article, we update and extend the Hagopian et al. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 4, 4-16, (2011) review and recommendations on schedule-thinning procedures following functional communication training. Since their publication, substantial research has been published on the efficacy, efficiency, and social validity of schedule-thinning methods. We provide updated recommendations for schedule thinning based on contemporary literature that has been published since 2011, as well as discuss key areas for future research.

Relative preference for distinct reinforcers maintaining destructive behavior

The literature offers few recommendations for sequencing exposure to treatment conditions with individuals with multiply maintained destructive behavior. Identifying relative preference for the functional reinforcers maintaining destructive behavior may be one means of guiding that decision. The present study presents a preliminary attempt at developing a robust relative preference and reinforcer assessment for individuals with multiply maintained destructive behavior. Guided and free-choice trials were implemented in which participants chose between two multiple-schedule arrangements, each of which programmed signaled periods of isolated reinforcer availability and unavailability. Consistent participant choice and responding during free-choice trials was then used to thin the corresponding schedule of reinforcement. The results demonstrated a strong preference for one of the two functional reinforcers for all four participants, yet preferences differed across participants and were not well predicted by responding in prior analyses.

Translational evaluation of on/off alternative reinforcement cycling

Cycling between the availability and unavailability of reinforcement for alternative responding has successfully reduced resurgence in basic laboratory evaluations, but this approach represents a marked departure from current standards of care when treating problem behavior, warranting careful translation before its use clinically. Therefore, with extinction arranged for target responding across groups in Phase 2, we evaluated the effects of cycling between the availability and unavailability of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) using a computer-based task with adult humans recruited through Amazon MTurk. Two control groups experienced constant DRA in Phase 2, with one group experiencing a dense DRA schedule and another group experiencing a lean DRA schedule. The cycling DRA group tended to show greater reductions in target responding and improved discrimination in Phase 2 and less target responding across Phases 2 and 3 than the lean DRA and dense DRA groups. These preliminary findings suggest that on/off DRA cycling procedures may produce more desirable treatment outcomes than constant DRA without producing negative side effects; however, further research is needed to confirm these possibilities.

Examining resurgence in rats following expanded-operant treatments

Resurgence of previously reinforced behavior represents a challenge to otherwise successful interventions based on differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA). Expanded-operant treatments seek to increase the number of functional alternative behaviors through DRA, thereby potentially mitigating resurgence. However, the few studies that have directly examined these methods as a tool for resurgence mitigation have provided limited and unclear results. Thus, the present experiments were designed to investigate the effect of expanded-operant DRA methods on resurgence of previously reinforced behavior using rat subjects. In two experiments, following a baseline phase in which a target response was trained, groups of rats experienced concurrent (i.e., five simultaneous alternative responses), serial (i.e., five sequentially available alternative responses), or single DRA interventions arranging similar rates of alternative reinforcement in order to examine potential differences in resurgence. Both experiments showed that neither serial nor concurrent DRA expanded-operant treatments reduced resurgence compared with single DRA regardless of whether stimuli associated with previously reinforced alternative responses were removed (Experiment 1) or remained present (Experiment 2) for the serial-DRA group. Further, a primacy effect in resurgence was obtained for the serial-DRA group in both experiments. Overall, these results suggest that expanded-operant treatments may not help to reduce resurgence.

Repetitive Speech and Problem Behavior: Functional Analysis of Precurrent Contingencies

When mands and problem behavior co-occur within an individual's repertoire, a functional analysis of precurrent contingencies helps to identify any relation between the two responses, as well as the function of problem behavior. Repetitive behaviors may function similarly to mands and also co-occur with problem behavior; particularly when repetitive behavior is blocked, or when caregivers refrain from participating in repetitive behavior episodes (e.g., the repetitive behavior involves a verbal or physical interaction with a caregiver). The current study presents assessment and treatment results for two participants diagnosed with autism, who demonstrated repetitive speech and problem behavior. Informal observations suggested that problem behavior occurred when an adult failed to emit a specific response to the participant's repetitive speech. Functional analysis results confirmed the informal observations and suggested that problem behavior functioned as a precurrent response to increase the probability of reinforcement for repetitive speech. We report treatment results and discuss the application of precurrent contingency analyses for problem behavior and repetitive behavior.

Resurgence of destructive behavior following differential rates of alternative reinforcement

Behavioral momentum theory (BMT) suggests that resurgence of destructive behavior may be at least partly determined by the rate of alternative reinforcement, with lean schedules of reinforcement producing less resurgence than dense schedules. Findings from basic and translational studies have been mixed, and the effects of alternative reinforcement rate on resurgence remain unclear. In the current study, we conducted a within-subject evaluation of resurgence during extinction with four children following functional communication training using dense and lean (BMT-informed) schedules of alternative reinforcement. We observed no reliable differences in resurgence across the dense and lean conditions. We discuss implications of these findings in relation to future research using quantitative analyses to evaluate the relative effects of alternative reinforcement rate and other BMT-based strategies for mitigating resurgence in applied settings.

Modeling Behavioral Persistence with Resurgence as Choice in Context (RaC2): A Tutorial

Resurgence as Choice in Context (RaC2) is a quantitative model for evaluating the reemergence of a previously extinguished response when alternative reinforcement is worsened. Rooted in the matching law, RaC2 proposes that allocation between target and alternative responding is based on changes in the relative value of each response option over time, accounting for periods with and without alternative reinforcement. Given that practitioners and applied researchers may have limited experience with constructing quantitative models, we provide a step-by-step task analysis for building RaC2 using Microsoft Excel 2013. We also provide a few basic learning activities to help readers better understand RaC2 itself, the variables that affect the model's predictions, and the clinical implications of those predictions.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-023-00796-y.

Relapse and its mitigation: Toward behavioral inoculation

Relapse following the successful treatment of problem behavior can increase the likelihood of injury and the need for more intensive care. Current research offers some predictions of how treatment procedures may contribute to relapse, and conversely, how the risk of relapse can be mitigated. This review describes relapse-mitigation procedures with varying levels of support, the quantitative models that have influenced the research on relapse mitigation, different experimental methods for measuring relapse mitigation, and directions for future research. We propose that by viewing the implementation of relapse-mitigation procedures as a means of producing behavioral inoculation, clinicians are placed in the proactive and intentional role of exposing their client's behavior to an array of reinforcement and stimulus conditions during treatment with the goal of decreasing the detrimental impact of future treatment challenges.

Quantifying increases in problem behavior following downshifts in reinforcement: A retrospective analysis and replication

The recurrence of a previously eliminated or reduced behavior following a downshift in alternative reinforcement is referred to as resurgence. Resurgence as Choice (RaC) is a quantitative model of behavioral persistence that posits that resurgence is governed by the same behavioral principles that underlie choice behavior. Consistent with the predictions of RaC, extant basic research with animals indicates that resurgence increases as an exponential function of the size of the downshift in alternative reinforcement. Recently, Shahan and Greer (2021) extended this finding to resurgence of problem behavior during schedule thinning following functional communication training (FCT). They found that when resurgence occurred, it increased exponentially as a function of relative decrements in reinforcer availability during schedule thinning with compound schedules of reinforcement. The purpose of the current study was to directly replicate the analytic procedures described in Shahan and Greer to examine resurgence of problem behavior during schedule thinning following FCT using two novel clinical datasets. Our results closely replicate the findings from Shahan and Greer, providing additional support for the generality of resurgence during downshifts in alternative reinforcement in clinical contexts. These results also highlight the potential applicability of RaC for modeling resurgence of problem behavior during FCT schedule thinning.

Conducting Translational Research in the Context of Patient Care

Although much has been written on the importance of translational research for bridging the continuum of basic science to clinical practice, few authors have described how such work can be carried out practically when working with patient populations in the context of ongoing clinical service delivery, where the priorities for patient care can sometimes conflict with the methods and goals of translational research. In this article, we explore some of the considerations for conducting this type of work while balancing clinical responsibilities that ensure high-quality patient care. We also discuss strategies we have found to jointly facilitate translational research and improve routine, clinical service delivery. A primary goal of this article is to encourage others working in applied settings to contribute to the increasingly important role that translational research plays in our science and practice by helping to better characterize and potentially lessen or remove barriers that may have impeded such investigations in the past.

Modeling resurgence with an evolutionary theory of behavior dynamics

McDowell's (2004) Evolutionary Theory of Behavior Dynamics (ETBD) is a computational theory that has reproduced a wide variety of behavioral phenomena observed in material reality. Here, we extended the generality of the ETBD by successfully replicating laboratory studies of resurgence with live animals using artificial organisms (AOs) animated by the theory. We ran AOs on concurrent random-interval random-interval (conc RI RI) schedules of reinforcement wherein one alternative (i.e., a target behavior) was reinforced while the other alternative (i.e., an alternative behavior) was not reinforced. Then, we placed the target behavior on extinction and reinforced the alternative response, producing a shift in allocation of responding from the target behavior to the alternative response. Finally, schedule thinning of the alternative response (i.e., downshifts) resulted in resurgence of target behavior. Our findings indicated that resurgence increased as a function of the relative downshift in reinforcement rate and magnitude, replicating findings from previous studies with live animals. These results further illustrate the utility of the ETBD for generating dynamic behavioral data and serve as a proof-of-concept for a novel computational approach for studying and understanding resurgence in future studies.

Translating Quantitative Theories of Behavior into Improved Clinical Treatments for Problem Behavior

The most important advancement in the treatment of destructive behavior has been the development of the functional analysis, which is used to prescribe effective treatments like functional communication training. Although this approach can be highly effective, extinction bursts and forms of treatment relapse commonly occur when function-based treatments are implemented by caregivers in natural community settings. In recent years, researchers have increasingly applied quantitative theories of behavior like behavioral momentum theory (BMT) and the temporally weighted matching law (TWML) to understand, prevent, or mitigate extinction bursts and treatment relapse. In this paper, we describe BMT and TWML and selectively review the basic, translational, and applied research supporting and opposing each theory. Then, we describe how function-based treatments may be refined based on these theories to improve the effectiveness, generality, and durability of function-based treatments for individuals with autism spectrum and related disorders who display problem behavior.

Relapse during the treatment of pediatric feeding disorders

Resurgence and renewal are treatment-relapse phenomena in which previously extinguished behavior returns after the conditions for an alternative response worsen or the context changes, respectively. Recently, researchers have evaluated the prevalence of resurgence and renewal when treating destructive behavior with functional communication training. However, resurgence of inappropriate mealtime behavior has yet to be evaluated; perhaps because treatments involve qualitatively different resurgence opportunities (e.g., increased bite-presentation rate). We evaluated the prevalence of resurgence and renewal of inappropriate mealtime behavior across 22 and 25 applications of extinction-based treatments, respectively. Resurgence occurred in 41% (9/22) of applications, most often following presentation-rate increases. Renewal occurred in 52% (13/25) of applications, most often following feeder changes from therapist to caregiver. We discuss these findings in terms of their ability to inform relapse-mitigation strategies for resurgence and renewal of inappropriate mealtime behavior.

On the scope and characteristics of relapse when treating severe destructive behavior

Prior studies on treatment relapse have typically examined the prevalence of resurgence or renewal of target behavior (e.g., destructive behavior) in isolation. This study analyzed both types of relapse during 25 consecutive treatments involving functional communication training during worsening reinforcement conditions for alternative behavior (i.e., schedule thinning) or following context changes. We also examined disruption of alternative behavior (i.e., functional communication requests, compliance). Resurgence and renewal of destructive behavior occurred in 76% and 69% of treatments, respectively, and in approximately a third of changes in reinforcement or context. Relapse of destructive behavior predicted alternative-response disruption and vice versa; the co-occurrence of these two events always exceeded the background probabilities of either event occurring in isolation. General reductions in treatment efficacy occurred across changes in reinforcement or context, with no apparent decrease in likelihood in later transitions. We discuss implications of our findings with respect to future studies examining treatment durability.

Using Chained or Tandem Schedules With Functional Communication Training: A Systematic Review

Chained and tandem schedules are a common method for thinning schedules of reinforcement following functional communication training (FCT) in the treatment of problem behavior. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of chained and tandem schedules following FCT to describe treatment characteristics and evaluate effects. We identified 38 articles and found reductions in problem behavior across four measures. Results of a random-effects multilevel meta-analysis of rigorous evaluations showed a significant effect of chained or tandem schedules + FCT on problem behavior relative to baseline. We observed resurgence in 77% of cases and 31% of schedule-thinning transitions. Results showed chained schedules resulted in greater reductions in problem behavior relative to tandem schedules. Exploratory moderator analyses suggested extinction, combined reinforcement, and delay and denial tolerance training procedures were associated with greater reductions in problem behavior relative to other treatment characteristics. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Prevalence of relapse of automatically maintained behavior resulting from context changes

Increases in behavior due to context changes are common and are known as instances of renewal. Clinically relevant examples from the literature highlighting renewal often include socially mediated problem behaviors. This report retrospectively analyzed data during context changes for individuals who engaged in problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement, to evaluate the prevalence of relapse. Problem behavior reemerged during changes both in the person implementing treatment (e.g., introducing a caregiver; 36%) and in the setting (e.g., introducing treatment in the home; 26%). Most prevalence studies report greatest relapse immediately following context changes but the highest level of relapse was observed after 5 sessions following person changes and no systematic pattern with setting changes. These patterns of relapse likely reflect differences in the function of settings and people relative to automatically reinforced behavior in the present study. Implications of relapse for treatments of problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement are discussed.

Empirically Deriving Omission and Commission Errors for Relapse Tests: A Demonstration of Reverse Translation

Most studies examine treatment relapse by programming contextual changes with perfect treatment integrity or with omission errors in the absence of a context change (i.e., all alternative responses placed on extinction). Recently, Mitteer et al. (2018) examined caregiver behavior in response to a confederate playing the role of a child with destructive behavior, providing the opportunity for researchers to empirically derive reinforcement schedules and test caregiver error patterns within future relapse tests with children. The present study represents a pilot demonstration of methods for reverse translating findings from caregivers to relapse preparations with children. We used a human-operant arrangement with three children with autism spectrum disorder in which they (a) emitted a target response (i.e., pad touch) for a preferred item in a home-like context, (b) emitted an alternative response (e.g., card touch) for the item in a clinic context while the target response was extinguished, and (c) experienced a relapse test in which the experimenter programmed the same low-rate omission and commission errors that caregivers made in the prior study within the home-like context. During the relapse test, target responding approximated or exceeded baseline ranges for all cases, and alternative behavior extinguished for two of the three cases. We discuss how researchers might incorporate similar translation processes in future relapse research.

Advances in AAC intervention: some contributions related to applied behavior analysis

This article extends Dr. Bob Remington's call for collaborations between those supporting behavioral approaches and those supporting more natural developmental approaches to beginning communication intervention. This article expands areas previously discussed by Dr. Remington. Topics that are addressed include pivotal behaviors that may facilitate communication acquisition, matching law and response efficiency, generalization, maintenance, and the related topics of general case instruction (which involves an understanding of stimulus and response classes). These topics reflect contemporary areas of research that could be better integrated into translational research and have not been extensively integrated into augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) practice. Dr. Remington's article discussed the value of behavioral approaches and corresponding methodology to AAC researchers and practitioners. We agree and discuss the need for greater interaction among proponents of varying approaches to intervention.

Destructive behavior increases as a function of reductions in alternative reinforcement during schedule thinning: A retrospective quantitative analysis

The behavioral processes determining the magnitude of the resurgence of destructive behavior during reinforcement schedule thinning have yet to be described, despite an uptick in prevalence research on the topic. As predicted by Resurgence as Choice theory, recent animal research has found that resurgence increases with the magnitude of a downshift in alternative reinforcement. Here we reanalyze the data from 2 recent prevalence studies to determine whether the size of the decrease in alternative reinforcement availability predicts the magnitude of resurgence in the clinic. Results from this retrospective analysis suggest that resurgence of destructive behavior increases significantly with decreases in the availability of alternative reinforcement. Implications for future research and translations of theoretical analyses to the clinic are discussed.

Some Dimensions of Mand Variability and Implications for Research and Practice

Since Skinner's conceptualization of the mand, applied behavior analysis researchers have used the concept to develop stimulus control transfer procedures effective for addressing manding deficits. More recently, researchers have explored the clinical utility of reinforcing mand variability during mand training and functional communication training. However, limitations in the conceptual analysis of mand variability may have limited the kinds of questions addressed in this research and our understanding of the findings. The current article reconceptualizes mand variability as consisting of eight distinct dimensions and provides operational definitions of the dimensions that may be useful for more precisely characterizing the effects of reinforcement on mand variability in future research. The article concludes with a brief discussion of potential clinical and research implications.

Examination of alternative-response discrimination training and resurgence in rats

Resurgence is an increase in a previously reinforced behavior following a worsening of conditions for a more recently reinforced behavior. Discrimination training is incorporated into treatment for problem behavior to prevent treatment adherence failures that may result in resurgence. There is evidence that resurgence may be reduced when a stimulus that signals alternative-response extinction is present compared with absent; however, the generality of this effect is unknown given the limited testing conditions. The goal of the present experiments was to further examine the effects of such stimuli in a reverse-translational evaluation using rats. Target responding was reinforced in baseline and then placed on extinction in the following discrimination-training phase. An alternative response was differentially reinforced in a two-component multiple schedule where one stimulus (i.e., S^D) signaled alternative-response reinforcement and the other (i.e., S^Δ) signaled extinction. Experiment 1 assessed resurgence in both the S^Δ and S^D when alternative reinforcement was removed. Experiment 2 evaluated resurgence under conditions that better approximated those used in the clinic in which the alternative-response S^Δ was present or absent. The S^Δ failed to suppress target responding during resurgence testing in both experiments. These findings suggest that the conditions under which an alternative-response S^Δ will successfully mitigate resurgence may be limited and require further research.

Sustaining behavior reduction by transitioning the topography of the functional communication response

When a functional communication response (FCR) can be reliably occasioned, destructive behavior tends to be lower. However, the form of FCR may affect the durability of functional communication training, as missing FCR materials may promote resurgence. Experiment 1 demonstrated that resurgence of target responding was lower when a vocal FCR remained available but was placed on extinction compared to when a card-based FCR was unavailable. Experiment 2 replicated the finding that initiating treatment with a card FCR produced less target responding than when initiating treatment with a vocal FCR. We then evaluated a set of procedures for transitioning the card FCR to the previously unlearned vocal FCR. These findings suggest benefits of training different types of FCRs at different stages of treatment and provide a preliminary set of procedures for transitioning between FCR topographies while occasioning minimal target responding.

Resurgence and downshifts in alternative reinforcement rate

Resurgence refers to an increase in a previously suppressed target behavior with a relative worsening of conditions for a more recently reinforced alternative behavior. This experiment examined the relation between resurgence and the magnitude of a reduction in the rate of reinforcement for the alternative behavior. Groups of both male and female rats initially pressed a target lever for food on a variable-interval (VI) 30-s schedule. In a second phase, responding to the target lever was extinguished for all groups and pressing an alternative lever was reinforced on a VI 10-s schedule. Next, the rate of reinforcement for alternative behavior was reduced differentially across groups by arranging extinction, VI 80-s, VI 40-s, VI 20-s, or continued VI 10-s reinforcement. Target responding increased as an exponential function of the magnitude of the reduction in alternative reinforcement rates. With the exception that males appeared to show higher rates of target responding in baseline and higher rates of alternative responding in other phases, the overall pattern of responding across phases was not meaningfully different between sexes. The pattern of both target and alternative response rates across sessions and phases was well described quantitatively by the Resurgence as Choice in Context model.

Resurgence following differential reinforcement of alternative behavior implemented with and without extinction

In the clinic, differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) often involves programming extinction for destructive behavior while reinforcing an alternative form of communication (e.g., a functional communication response); however, implementing extinction can be unsafe or impractical under some circumstances. Quantitative theories of resurgence (i.e., Behavioral Momentum Theory and Resurgence as Choice) predict differences in the efficacy of treatments that do and do not involve extinction of target responding when reinforcement conditions maintaining alternative responding worsen. We tested these predictions by examining resurgence following two DRA conditions in which we equated rates of reinforcement. In DRA without extinction, target and alternative behavior produced reinforcement. In DRA with extinction plus noncontingent reinforcement, only alternative behavior produced reinforcement. We conducted this study in a reverse-translation sequence, first with participants who engaged in destructive behavior (Experiment 1) and then in a laboratory setting with rats (Experiment 2). Across both experiments, we observed proportionally lower levels of target responding during and following the DRA condition that arranged extinction for the target response. However, levels of resurgence were similar following both arrangements.