The Problem of Class Breakdown in Sidman's (1994, 2000) Theory about the Origin of Stimulus Equivalence

Sidman (1994, 2000) hypothesized that equivalence relations are a direct outcome of reinforcement contingencies. This theory is problematic because contingencies do not always result in equivalence. Sidman proposed that equivalence relations may conflict with analytic units, the other outcome of contingencies (e.g., in conditional discriminations with common responses/reinforcers). This conflict may result in a generalized class breakdown and a failure to pass equivalence tests. This is more likely in nonhumans, very young humans, etc. The conflict can also result in a selective class breakdown and success in equivalence tests. This occurs after experience shows the organism the necessity and utility of this process. The nature of that experience and the class breakdown processes were not described by Sidman. I explored the implications of the following hypotheses for Sidman's theory. First, conditional discriminations with a common response/reinforcer result in a generalized class breakdown when participants fail to discriminate emergent relations incompatible with contingencies from those compatible. Second, learning to discriminate between the two requires a history of multiple exemplar training (MET). This implies that equivalence class breakdown is a common response to exemplars that have nothing in common except their relations. This, however, contradicts Sidman's views about the impossibility of such process in the absence of a complex verbal repertoire. If that type of learning from MET is possible, then the possibility that MET results in the selective formation of equivalence classes must be admitted, and the utility of hypothesizing that equivalence is a direct outcome of reinforcement contingencies can be questioned.

Classes de Estímulos por Bebês de até 24 Meses de Idade,

Resumo Neste estudo investigou-se a emergência de classes de equivalência generalizada, com inclusão de reforçadores específicos em bebês de 24 meses. Relações auditivo-visuais (AB e AC) foram ensinadas, com consequências específicas (D), para 5 bebês entre 18 e 20 meses de idade. Testes de nomeação e de relações emergentes foram realizados (BC, CB, AD, DE e EB, com semelhança física dos estímulos E e B). Três participantes formaram de classes de equivalência, incluindo os reforçadores específicos (ABCD), e dois deles apresentaram nomeação consistente. Dois participantes apresentaram desempenho correspondente à equivalência generalizada. Os resultados indicaram (a) a inédita formação de classes de equivalência generalizada com inclusão de reforçadores específicos em bebês, e (b) que a nomeação pode não ser condição necessária para a formação de classes.

Equivalence Class Formation in Individuals With Autism: Predictions From ABLA-R Levels

Children who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often fail to show equivalence class formation. This may be related to their difficulty in learning the programmed baseline conditional discriminations. The present study investigated equivalence class formation after training visual identity-matching performance with auditory class-specific consequences in 6 individuals who were diagnosed with ASD and who achieved different levels (Levels 4, 5, and 6) on the Assessment of Basic Learning Abilities-Revised (ABLA-R). The potentially emergent relations were all arbitrary (relations between completely dissimilar stimuli): visual-visual (AB and BA) and auditory-visual (SA and SB). None of the participants who achieved ABLA-R Level 4 or 5 responded in accord with equivalence class formation. They did not present any emergent arbitrary conditional relations (either visual-visual relations or auditory-visual relations). Only participants who achieved ABLA-R Level 6 demonstrated equivalence class formation. These findings are consistent with the predictive ability of the ABLA-R with regard to the acquisition of discriminations and to the emergence of the same type of conditional relations and the same hierarchy of complexity.

Auditory sentence comprehension in children with cochlear implants after simple visual discrimination training with specific auditory-visual consequences

The present study evaluated the effects of simple discrimination training with specific consequences on auditory comprehension in children with cochlear implants (CIs). Demonstration of auditory comprehension was based on derived conditional relations and the formation of equivalence relations. Participants learned two sets of three simple visual discriminations in which the positive stimulus (S⁺) was a written pseudo-sentence (C1, C2, or C3) or a compound abstract picture (D1, D2, or D3), displayed in the correct orientation. Each trial presented the S⁺ simultaneously with two S^- which were the same sentence or picture as the positive stimulus but were displayed in either an upside-down or an inverse orientation. Correct responses were followed by specific consequences with two components presented simultaneously: a dictated pseudo-sentence (A) and a representative picture (B). Probes of arbitrary matching to sample assessed derived auditory-visual (AB, AC, and AD) and visual-visual (BC, CB, BD, DB, CD, and DC) conditional relations. All three participants learned the simple discriminations; two of them showed derived conditional relations, demonstrating the formation of three ABCD classes. The present study replicated and extended previous results on sentence learning in children with CIs, suggesting the simple discrimination training with specific consequences as an efficient procedure to generate auditory-visual and symbolic relations in this population.

Designing Receptive Language Programs: Pushing the Boundaries of Research and Practice

Initial difficulty with receptive language is a stumbling block for some children with autism. Numerous strategies have been attempted over the years, and general guidelines for teaching receptive language have been published. But what to do when all else fails? This article reviews 21 strategies that have been effective for some children with autism. Although many of the strategies require further research, behavioral practitioners should consider implementation after careful review. The purpose of this article is to help behavior analysts in practice to categorize different teaching procedures for systematic review, recognize the conceptually systematic rationale behind each strategy, identify different client profiles that may make 1 strategy more effective than another, and create modifications to receptive language programming that remain grounded in research.

The Differential Outcomes Effect Using Sensory Outcomes in a Many-to-One Matching-to-Sample Task

Abstract The present study was designed to evaluate the use of sensory outcomes (visual vs. auditory) using a differential outcomes procedure to facilitate learning in a many-to-one matching-to-sample task. For one group of participants (differential outcomes) each correct stimulus-choice sequence was always followed by a different outcome; whereas for the rest of participants (non-differential outcomes) each correct sequence was followed by the same outcome. Participants trained with differential outcomes showed a faster acquisition and higher overall accuracy than participants trained with non-differential outcomes. The results provide a new extension the differential outcomes effect by using sensory outcomes and many-to-one matching to-sample task; applications of the differential outcomes procedure are discussed.