A scanning electron microscopic and flame spectrometry study on the role of Ca2+ in amphibian neurulation using papaverine inhibition and ionophore induction of morphogenetic movement

Urodele spinal cord regeneration and related processes

Urodele amphibians, newts and salamanders, can regenerate lesioned spinal cord at any stage of the life cycle and are the only tetrapod vertebrates that regenerate spinal cord completely as adults. The ependymal cells play a key role in this process in both gap replacement and caudal regeneration. The ependymal response helps to produce a different response to neural injury compared with mammalian neural injury. The regenerating urodele cord produces new neurons as well as supporting axonal regrowth. It is not yet clear to what extent urodele spinal cord regeneration recapitulates embryonic anteroposterior and dorsoventral patterning gene expression to achieve functional reconstruction. The source of axial patterning signals in regeneration would be substantially different from those in developing tissue, perhaps with signals propagated from the stump tissue. Examination of the effects of fibroblast growth factor and epidermal growth factor on ependymal cells in vivo and in vitro suggest a connection with neural stem cell behavior as described in developing and mature mammalian central nervous system. This review coordinates the urodele regeneration literature with axial patterning, stem cell, and neural injury literature from other systems to describe our current understanding and assess the gaps in our knowledge about urodele spinal cord regeneration.

Fork head prevents apoptosis and promotes cell shape change during formation of the Drosophila salivary glands

The secretory tubes of the Drosophila salivary glands are formed by the regulated, sequential internalization of the primordia. Secretory cell invagination occurs by a change in cell shape that includes basal nuclear migration and apical membrane constriction. In embryos mutant for fork head (fkh), which encodes a transcription factor homologous to mammalian hepatocyte nuclear factor 3beta (HNF-3beta), the secretory primordia are not internalized and secretory tubes do not form. Here, we show that secretory cells of fkh mutant embryos undergo extensive apoptotic cell death following the elevated expression of the apoptotic activator genes, reaper and head involution defective. We rescue the secretory cell death in the fkh mutants and show that the rescued cells still do not invaginate. The rescued fkh secretory cells undergo basal nuclear migration in the same spatial and temporal pattern as in wild-type secretory cells, but do not constrict their apical surface membranes. Our findings suggest at least two roles for fkh in formation of the embryonic salivary glands: an early role in promoting survival of the secretory cells, and a later role in secretory cell invagination, specifically in the constriction of the apical surface membrane.

Temporal changes in intracellular free calcium levels in the developing neuroepithelium during neurulation in the chick

Intracellular free calcium ion (Ca2+) levels of the developing chick neuroepithelium during neural tube closure (Hamburger and Hamilton stages 3-11 of embryonic development) were determined using the hydrophobic acetoxymethyl ester of the fluorescent dye fura-2 (fura-2/AM). Temporal changes in the free Ca2+ level in neuroepithelial cells are correlated with the degree of folding of the neuroepithelium. The concentration of intracellular Ca2+ in the neuroepithelium reaches its highest level when apposing neural folds are actively making contact.

Split cord malformation: Part I: A unified theory of embryogenesis for double spinal cord malformations

Much confusion still exists concerning the pathological definitions and clinical significance of double spinal cord malformations. Traditional terms used to describe the two main forms of these rare malformations, diastematomyelia and diplomyelia, add to the confusion by their inconsistent usage, ambiguities, and implications of their dissimilar embryogenesis. Based on the detailed radiographic and surgical findings of 39 cases of double cord malformations and the autopsy data on two other cases, this study endorses a new classification for double cord malformations and proposes a unified theory of embryogenesis for all their variant forms and features. The new classification recommends the term split cord malformation (SCM) for all double spinal cords. A Type I SCM consists of two hemicords, each contained within its own dural tube and separated by a dura-sheathed rigid osseocartilaginous median septum. A Type II SCM consists of two hemicords housed in a single dural tube separated by a nonrigid, fibrous median septum. These two essential features necessary for typing, the state of the dural tube and the nature of the median septum, do not ever overlap between the two main forms and can always be demonstrated by imaging studies so that accurate preoperative typing is always possible. All other associated structures in SCM such as paramedian nerve roots, myelomeningoceles manqué, and centromedian vascular structures frequently do overlap between types and are not reliable typing criteria. The unified theory of embryogenesis proposes that all variant types of SCMs have a common embryogenetic mechanism. Basic to this mechanism is the formation of adhesions between ecto- and endoderm, leading to an accessory neurenteric canal around which condenses an endomesenchymal tract that bisects the developing notochord and causes formation of two hemineural plates. The altered state of the emerging split neural tube and the subsequent ontogenetic fates of the constituent components of the endomesenchymal tract ultimately determine the configuration and orientation of the hemicords, the nature of the median septum, the coexistence of various vascular, lipomatous, neural, and fibrous oddities within the median cleft, the high association with open myelodysplastic and cutaneous lesions, and the seemingly unlikely relationship with fore and midgut anomalies. The multiple facets of this theory are presented in increasing complexity against the background of known embryological facts and theories; the validity of each facet is tested by comparing structures and phenomena predicted by the facet with actual radiographic, surgical, and histopathological findings of these 41 cases of SCM.

Lipid droplets of neuroepithelial cells are a major calcium storage site during neural tube formation in chick and mouse embryos

In situ precipitation of calcium (Ca2+) with fluoride and antimonate shows that Ca(2+)-specific precipitate is localized almost exclusively within lipid droplets of neuroepithelial cells during neural tube formation in chick and mouse embryos. The density of Ca2+ precipitate within lipid droplets is generally greater in the apical ends of cells situated in regions of the neuroepithelium that are actively engaged in bending. These findings suggest that lipid droplets, in addition to providing a source of metabolic fuel for developing neuroepithelial cells, also serve as Ca(2+)-storage and -releasing sites during neurulation.

A morphometric and computer-assisted three-dimensional reconstruction study of neural tube formation in chick embryos

The origin of the driving forces for neural tube formation remains uncertain but is currently thought to involve the participation of microfilament bundles situated in the apical ends of neuroepithelial cells. In the work presented here, we show how morphometric measurements that map local variations in the apical geometry of neuroepithelial cells (especially apical constriction) can provide information on the distribution of motive forces within the neuroepithelium during neural tube formation. When used in combination with computer-assisted, three-dimensional reconstruction, it becomes possible to analyze the morphometric data from a dynamic, three-dimensional perspective. As an example application of this method, we have used morphometry to evaluate the effects of ionomycin on the developing neuroepithelium. Treatment of early (stages 6-8) chick embryos with 5 microM ionomycin was found to cause rapid bending of the neuroepithelium within 1 min of exposure and a dramatic acceleration of the normal sequence of neural tube formation. Electron microscopy and morphometry revealed that this acceleration was coincident with a marked increase in the local degree of apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells, presumably a consequence of enhanced contractile activity of apical microfilament bundles. This work shows that transient elevation of free calcium levels can accelerate the usual sequential phases of NT formation. The rapidity of the response (hours of normal development reduced to minutes), increased prominence of apical microfilament bundles, and the enhanced degree of apical constriction strongly support a direct causal role for apical microfilament bundles and apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells in bending of the neuroepithelium.

Calcium in the developing Ambystoma neural axis shown by 3H and fluorescent chlortetracycline and atomic absorption spectrometry

The calcium ion has been implicated in the mediation of the morphogenetic movements that occur during neural tube formation. The present study identifies high levels of calcium in the neuroepithelium of the neural plate, folds, and tube. These levels are substantially higher than those discerned elsewhere in the embryo. The calcium is localized in morphogenetically active regions by using the antibiotic chlortetracycline (CTC) which chelates calcium and is demonstrated in this investigation by both autoradiography and calcium-linked fluorescence. The specificity of CTC reaction for calcium in the developing neural axis is confirmed by EGTA competition. A comparison of the actual calcium levels in the developing neural axis (dorsal) with equivalently weighted ventral tissues was obtained by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). This method provides a total count of the calcium without any loss during tissue processing. For AAS, living tissues were precisely excised and immediately dessicated. Each tissue sample (dry weight 1.5 mg) was then solubilized for analysis. The spectrometric data reveal that the embryonic dorsal aspect forming the neural tube contains 57% more calcium than an equivalent weight of the ventral aspect.

Neural tube formation in the mouse: a morphometric and computerized three-dimensional reconstruction study of the relationship between apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells and the shape of the neuroepithelium

Morphometry and computerized three-dimensional reconstruction were used to study the relationship between apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells and the pattern of bending of the neuroepithelium in the developing neural tube of the 12-somite mouse embryo. The neuroepithelium of the mouse exhibits prominent regional variations in size and shape along the embryo axis. The complex shape of most of the cephalic neural tube (e.g., forebrain and midbrain) is due to the coexistence of concave and convex bending sites whereas more caudal regions (e.g., hindbrain and spinal cord) generally lack sites of convex bending and have a relatively simple shape. The apical morphology of neuroepithelial cells was found to be correlated more closely with the local status of bending of the neuroepithelium than with the specific region of the neural tube in which they are located. In areas of enhanced apical constriction, microfilament bundles were particularly prominent. Morphometry revealed that patterns of bending of the neuroepithelium were correlated almost exactly with those of apical constriction throughout the forming neural tube. These findings support the idea that apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells, resulting from tension generated by microfilament bundles, plays a major role in bending of the neuroepithelium during neural tube formation in the mouse.

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors collaborate to generate driving forces for neural tube formation in the chick: a study using morphometry and computerized three-dimensional reconstruction

The formation of the neural tube, the rudiment of the entire central nervous system, is one of the earliest morphogenetic movements. The origin of the driving forces for this process remains uncertain, but recent studies suggest the involvement of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In the present study, we have used morphometry, analysis of stereopair photographs of whole embryos, and computerized three-dimensional reconstruction to investigate the factors which constitute the bulk of the driving forces for neural tube formation in the developing midbrain of Hamburger and Hamilton stages 5-9 chick embryos. Results support the notion that neural tube formation is driven by a coordinated interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic forces. Initial bending of the neural plate along the midline of the embryo and uplifting of the neural folds is accomplished primarily through the combined action of intrinsic forces (resulting from apical constriction of neuroepithelial cells) and extrinsic forces (mostly a passive consequence of head-fold formation). However, once in the uplifted position, curling over of neural folds and closure of the neural tube is driven largely by apical constriction-mediated (intrinsic) forces that are generated by cells in the midlateral walls of the forming neural tube.

Studies on the mechanisms of neurulation in the chick: morphometric analysis of force distribution within the neuroepithelium during neural tube formation

Changes in the shape of neuroepithelial cells, particularly apical constriction, are generally thought to play a major role in generating the driving forces for neural tube formation. Our previous study [Nagele and Lee (1987) J. Exp. Zool., 241:197-205] has shown that, in the developing midbrain region of stage 8+ chick embryos, neuroepithelial cells showing the greatest degree of apical constriction are concentrated at sites of enhanced bending of the neuroepithelium (i.e., the floor and midlateral walls of neural tube), suggesting that driving forces resulting from apical constriction are concentrated at these sites during closure of the neural tube. In the present study, we have used morphometric methods to 1) measure regional variations in the degree of apical constriction and apical surface folding at selected regions along the anteroposterior axis of stage 8+ chick embryos, which closely resemble the various ontogenetic phases of neural tube formation, and 2) investigate how forces resulting from apical constriction are distributed within the neuroepithelium during transformation of the neural plate into a neural tube. Results show that, during neural tube formation, driving forces resulting from apical constriction are not distributed uniformly throughout the neuroepithelium but rather are concentrated sequentially at three distinct locations: 1) the floor (during transformation of the neural plate to a V-shaped neuroepithelium), 2) the midlateral walls (during transformation of the V-shaped neuroepithelium into a C-shaped neuroepithelium), and 3) the upper walls (during the transformation of the C-shaped neuroepithelium into a closed neural tube).

Retinal cell death occurs in the absence of retinal disc invagination: experimental evidence in papaverine-treated chicken embryos

In an attempt to clarify the relationship between the presence of retinal cell death and the invagination of the optic vesicle, we have tested the occurrence and cytological characteristics of the retinal necrotic areas in the embryonic chicken after the administration in ovo of papaverine. Papaverine, a Ca2+ antagonist, was found to prevent the invagination of the optic vesicle. All embryonic retinae presented two distinct necrotic areas. However, these areas of cell death appeared abnormally located in the experimental, uninvaginated retina. One area was located at the transition between the retinal disc and the ventral wall of the optic vesicle; a second area was located in the dorsal wall of the optic vesicle, close to the optic stalk. We suggest that these necrotic areas represent the normal necrotic areas, should the invagination of the retinal disc have taken place. Retinal cell death appears to be programmed; it occurs whether the retinal disc invaginates or not. Cell death appears, in this experimental model, as a natural marker giving evidence that the embryonic retinal cells move from the optic stalk into the invagination retinal disc during normal eye cup formation. In addition to the uninvaginated optic vesicle the lens placode failed to invaginate in 45% of the cases, forming a lens vesicle in 55% of the remaining cases. This suggests that the two processes of invagination are governed by a different set of factors.

The role of Ca2+ in the regulation of embryogenesis in early amphibian and echinoderm embryos

It is difficult to measure intracellular calcium concentrations in dividing embryos and, furthermore, these interact with pHi and with cyclic nucleotides. Nevertheless, the evidence currently suggests that changing [Ca2+]i levels probably do not have a major role in controlling normal cell-to-cell communication and so do not integrate cell division during programmed cleavage in amphibian embryos. However, treatments that are known or expected to raise artificially cytoplasmic calcium to relatively high levels cause abnormal embryogenesis, probably via the uncoupling of intercellular communication of the blastomeres, and also cortical contractions in early echinoderm and amphibian embryos.

Calcium, microfilaments and morphogenesis

Morphogenesis, the generation of tissue form, is important not only in the embryogenesis of a new individual, but also because a change in morphogenesis may be involved in the establishment of differences between individuals during evolution. Morphogenetic movements are effected in part by coordinated changes in the shapes of individual cells and over the past decade the cellular organelles responsible for cell shape have been identified as microfilaments and microtubules. In non-embryonic systems the contraction of microfilaments is controlled by the level of intracellular free calcium, and so calcium is implicated as an intermediate control mechanism in morphogenisis. Through techniques which perturb the calcium balance of cells, or which measure calcium ion concentration directly, evidence is accumulating that calcium is involved in morphogenetic movements such as gastrulation and neurulation, and related phenomena such as wound healing. Thus fundamental questions about the control of morphogenesis in embryogenesis and evolution may now be couched in more precise terms of the control of intracellular calcium ion balance.

Calcium dependence and contraction in somite formation

The existence of a calcium-dependent contractile process in the formation of somites from segmental plate mesoderm was investigated using a Ca2+ agonist and Ca2+ and calmodulin antagonists. The contribution of cell movement and apical constriction in the segmentation process were assessed using SEM of normal and drug-treated somite and segmental plate tissue. Explants that contained segmental plates of stage 14-15 chick embryos were cultured on vitelline membranes in calcium- and magnesium-free (CMF) Hands' solution, liquid culture medium, and medium containing drugs. Ca2+ ionophore A23187 promoted the rapid completion of one new somite pair. CMF halted segmentation. The Ca2+ antagonists verapamil and papaverine reversibly inhibited segmentation. Theophylline did not inhibit segmentation, suggesting that the effects of the Ca2+ antagonists are not due to inhibition of phosphodiesterase activity. These results suggest that somitogenesis is Ca2+-dependent. Two drugs that inhibit the binding of calmodulin, chlorpromazine and trifluoperazine (TFP), halted segmentation. The inhibitory effect of TFP was reversible. The effects of TFP on somites were compared with those of cytochalasin D. The contribution of microtubules to cell shape and movement in somitogenesis was examined by incubation with nocodazole, a reversible inhibitor of tubulin polymerization. Cell elongation and somitogenesis were inhibited.

Neural tube closure defects following in vitro exposure of mouse embryos to xylocaine

Early somite mouse embryos were exposed in vitro to xylocaine (Lignocaine hydrochloride) to examine its effect on neural tube closure. When embryos were exposed to 2.4 x 10(-4) mg/ml xylocaine for the entire 36-hour culture period, cephalic neural tube closure did not take place. Then examined by SEM, the neuroepithelial cells of these embryos were incompletely elevated, and depressions in their lateral surfaces were often observed. TEM observations on the neuroepithelium of similar embryos indicated that the microtubules and apical microfilament bundles were absent. The role of calcium in the maintenance of neuroepithelial cell asymmetry and in the production of these defects is considered.

Effects of colchicine, cytochalasin-B and papaverine on wound healing in Xenopus early embryos

The effects of colchicine, cytochalasin-B and papaverine on wound healing in Xenopus early embryos have been studied. Colchicine does not prevent wound healing, whereas cytochalasin-B does. Papaverine, under conditions which prevent the completion of neurulation, does not prevent wound healing. A model is given which might explain these observations.

Neural tube closure defects caused by papaverine in explanted early chick embryos

Papaverine (50 micrograms/ml) preferentially inhibited uplifting of neural folds in explanted stage 8 chick embryos. Affected neuroepithelial cells often lost their wedge-shaped and elongated appearance. Also, luminal surfaces of most affected cells were smoother than usual as evidenced by the marked decrease in the number of cytoplasmic extensions, but the integrity of other structures (including cytoskeletal components) was not noticeably affected. The observed changes in cell surface topography were due, at least in part, to the imparied ability of apical microfilaments to contract and their eventual relaxation. The "relaxing" effect of papaverine on neural folds could be reversed by subsequent treatment with ionophore A23187. Since papaverine and ionophore A23187 are known to alter the normal distribution of intracellular Ca2+ and changes in cell surface topography are correlated with contractile activities of apical microfilaments, papaverine elicits neural tube closure defects by lowering intracellular free Ca2+ levels, thereby relaxing contracted apical microfilaments in neuroepithelial cells.

Inhibition of neural tube closure by ionophore A23187 in chick embryos

Ionophore A23187 inhibited closure of the chick neural tube through its effects on cytoskeletal components.

A scanning electron microscopic and x-ray microanalytic study of cell surface material during amphibian neurulation

Treatment with lanthanum (La3+) after fixation in phosphate (PO4-3)-buffered glutaraldehyde results in the deposition of a cell surface material (CSM) primarily on the developing urodele amphibian neural axis. X-ray probe microanalysis indicates that calcium (CA2+) levels are considerably higher in the neural fold region. La3+ displaces Ca2+ from negatively-charged moieties on biological membranes. Once bound, La3+ likely interacts with residual phosphate(s) resulting in deposition of CSM. Elemental X-ray microanalysis shows CSM contains mostly lanthanum and phosphorus. The high level of regional La3+ binding is correlated with inherently greater Ca2+ levels in the developing neural axis.