Eggshell formation in Bdelloura candida, an ectoparasitic turbellarian of the horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus

Flatworm cocoons in the abyss: same plan under pressure

While knowledge of early ontogeny in abyssal animals is highly limited in general, it was completely lacking for abyssal, free-living platyhelminths. We discovered flatworm egg capsules (or 'cocoons') on rocks collected at depths of 6176-6200 m on the abyssal slope of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench, northwestern Pacific. The egg capsules were black and spherical, around 3 mm in diameter, and contained three to seven individuals (n = 4) at the same developmental stage, either the spherical (putative early embryo) or vermiform (putative late embryo) stages. A molecular phylogenetic analysis based on 18S and 28S rRNA sequences revealed that the flatworms belong in suborder Maricola in Tricladida and suggested that they may have colonized from shallow to deep waters. This study provides the deepest record for free-living flatworms and the first information on their early life stages in the abyssal zone, which were very similar to those in shallow-water forms. This similarity in development between the relatively benign shallow-water and the extreme abyssal environments suggests that triclads adapting to the latter faced primarily physiological and/or ecological adaptive challenges rather than developmental ones.

Jack of all trades: versatile catechol crosslinking mechanisms

Catechols play an important role in many natural systems. They are known to readily interact with both organic (e.g., amino acids) and inorganic (e.g., metal ions, metal oxides) compounds, thereby providing a powerful system for protein curing. Catechol crosslinked protein networks, such as sclerotized cuticle and byssal threads of the mussel, have been shown to exhibit excellent mechanical properties. A lot of effort has been devoted to mimicking the natural proteins using synthetic catechol-functionalized polymers. Despite the success in developing catechol-functionalized materials, the crosslinking chemistry of catechols is still a subject of debate. To develop materials with controlled and superior properties, a clear understanding of the crosslinking mechanism of catechols is of vital importance. This review describes the crosslinking pathways of catechol and derivatives in both natural and synthetic systems. We discuss existing pathways of catechol crosslinking and parameters that affect the catechol chemistry in detail. This overview will point towards a rational direction for further investigation of the complicated catechol chemistry.

Mini-review: the role of redox in Dopa-mediated marine adhesion

3, 4-Dihydroxyphenylanine (Dopa)-containing proteins are key to wet adhesion in mussels and possibly other sessile organisms also. However, Dopa-mediated adhesive bonding is a hard act to follow in that, at least in mussels, bonding depends on Dopa in both reduced and oxidized forms, for adhesion and cohesion, respectively. Given the vulnerability of Dopa to spontaneous oxidation, the most significant challenge to using it in practical adhesion is controlling Dopa redox in a temporally- and spatially defined manner. Mussels appear to achieve such control in their byssal attachment plaques, and factors involved in redox control can be measured with precision using redox probes such as the diphenylpicryl hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical. Understanding the specifics of natural redox control may provide fundamentally important insights for adhesive polymer engineering and antifouling strategies.

Oocyst wall formation and composition in coccidian parasites

The oocyst wall of coccidian parasites is a robust structure that is resistant to a variety of environmental and chemical insults. This resilience allows oocysts to survive for long periods, facilitating transmission from host to host. The wall is bilayered and is formed by the sequential release of the contents of two specialized organelles - wall forming body 1 and wall forming body 2 - found in the macrogametocyte stage of Coccidia. The oocyst wall is over 90% protein but few of these proteins have been studied. One group is cysteine-rich and may be presumed to crosslink via disulphide bridges, though this is yet to be investigated. Another group of wall proteins is rich in tyrosine. These proteins, which range in size from 8-31 kDa, are derived from larger precursors of 56 and 82 kDa found in the wall forming bodies. Proteases may catalyze processing of the precursors into tyrosine-rich peptides, which are then oxidatively crosslinked in a reaction catalyzed by peroxidases. In support of this hypothesis, the oocyst wall has high levels of dityrosine bonds. These dityrosine crosslinked proteins may provide a structural matrix for assembly of the oocyst wall and contribute to its resilience.

Absorption spectroscopy and binding constants for first-row transition metal complexes of a DOPA-containing peptide

A diverse array of biological systems incorporate 3,4-dihydroxyphenlyalanine (DOPA) into proteins and small molecules for cross-linking and material generation. Marine worm eggshells, sea squirt wound plugs, and marine mussel adhesives may all be formed by combining DOPA-containing molecules with high levels of metals. In order to provide model systems for characterizing these biomaterials, we carried out a study on metal binding to a DOPA-containing peptide. Ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra are presented for the AdopaTP peptide binding to Fe3+, V3+, VO2+, Mn3+, Ti4+, Cu2+, Co2+, and Ni2+ in mono, bis, and where applicable, tris coordination modes. Association constants were determined for selected metal ions binding to the peptide. In general, the spectroscopic and binding properties of this DOPA-containing peptide were found to be similar to those of catechol.

MOLECULAR CLONING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF VITELLINE PRECURSOR PROTEIN B1 FROM CLONORCHIS SINENSIS

In trematodes, vitelline precursor proteins are required for eggshell formation. A cDNA clone of Clonorchis sinensis (CsVpB1) was selected from an EST pool, encoding a polypeptide of 245 amino acids. The CsVpB1 polypeptide demonstrated homology with vitelline precursor proteins from trematodes with high sequential identities. In a phylogenic tree, CsVpB1 clustered with trematode VpB proteins. The CsVpB1 polypeptide was found to be rich in tyrosine residues, including putative predihydroxyphenyl alanine (DOPA) residues, involved in cross-linking of the precursor proteins. Mouse immune sera were raised against a recombinant CsVpB1 protein. In adult C. sinensis, CsVpB1 protein was exclusively localized in vitelline follicles. Based on these results, the CsVpB1 cDNA is believed to encode a VpB of C. sinensis.

Paternity in horseshoe crabs when spawning in multiple-male groups

Unpaired or satellite male horseshoe crabs, Limulus polyphemus, are attracted to and often form a group around a pair (a female with an attached male) that is nesting in the high intertidal zone. These males are engaged in sperm competition. We observed nesting pairs and their associated satellites in the wild, collected and reared their eggs and used genetic markers to examine paternity. We found that the unpaired, satellite males are highly successful at fertilizing eggs; two satellites can leave the attached male with few fertilizations. Two satellites together are each as successful as one spawning with a pair. A satellite's location around the female greatly affects his success, and males compete for access to a position over the dorsal canal between the prosoma and opisthosoma of the female and under the front margin of the paired male where they are most likely to fertilize eggs. Although eggs and sperm retain their viability for some time after spawning, nearly all eggs are fertilized by the satellites that are around the nesting pair at the time of egg laying and by the attached male. A number of factors including beach current, female size and male behaviour affect the outcome of sperm competition in this externally fertilizing species. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Histological analysis of the egg capsule of the ovoviviparous polystomatid monogenean, Pseudodiplorchis americanus

Transmission of Pseudodiplorchis americanus is restricted to the brief period when its host, a desert toad, enters water to spawn. The parasite accumulates its entire annual reproductive output within an elongated uterus during the 10-11-month period of host hibernation. Embryos of P. americanus, at all stages of development, are retained within the uterus which eventually becomes packed with around 150 encapsulated infective larvae. Recently formed eggs, which comprise a fertilized ovum and 2-3 vitelline cells, are closely surrounded by a primary eggshell which stains positively for acidic proteins and keratin. Initially, during passage along the proximal uterus, the egg capsule is only 60 microns in diameter, but as it passes to the distal uterus it expands to 800 microns in diameter to accommodate the growing larva. Due to chemical alterations or complete replacement of the shell, the final (secondary) egg capsule is a large sac-like structure composed of elastin. The flexible nature of this shell maximizes the numbers of infective larvae which can be stored in utero. TEM studies have revealed this capsule to be composed of multi-laminate membranes with a specialized cytoplasmic lining involved in a unique mechanism for embryo nutrition. This is the first report of an elastin-type eggshell within the Monogenea.