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Tingle JL, Garner KL, Astley HC. Functional diversity of snake locomotor behaviors: A review of the biological literature for bioinspiration. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2024; 1533:16-37. [PMID: 38367220 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.15109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
Organismal solutions to natural challenges can spark creative engineering applications. However, most engineers are not experts in organismal biology, creating a potential barrier to maximally effective bioinspired design. In this review, we aim to reduce that barrier with respect to a group of organisms that hold particular promise for a variety of applications: snakes. Representing >10% of tetrapod vertebrates, snakes inhabit nearly every imaginable terrestrial environment, moving with ease under many conditions that would thwart other animals. To do so, they employ over a dozen different types of locomotion (perhaps well over). Lacking limbs, they have evolved axial musculoskeletal features that enable their vast functional diversity, which can vary across species. Different species also have various skin features that provide numerous functional benefits, including frictional anisotropy or isotropy (as their locomotor habits demand), waterproofing, dirt shedding, antimicrobial properties, structural colors, and wear resistance. Snakes clearly have much to offer to the fields of robotics and materials science. We aim for this review to increase knowledge of snake functional diversity by facilitating access to the relevant literature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelsey L Garner
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, USA
| | - Henry C Astley
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, USA
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2
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Plocek MR, Dunham NT. Spatiotemporal walking gait kinematics of semi-arboreal red pandas (Ailurus fulgens). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 339:755-766. [PMID: 37395486 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Semi-arboreal mammals must routinely cope with the differing biomechanical challenges of terrestrial versus arboreal locomotion; however, it is not clear to what extent semi-arboreal mammals adjust footfall patterns when moving on different substrates. We opportunistically filmed quadrupedal locomotion (n = 132 walking strides) of semi-arboreal red pandas (Ailurus fulgens; n = 3) housed at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo and examined the effects of substrate type on spatiotemporal gait kinematic variables using linear mixed models. We further investigated the effects of substrate diameter and orientation on arboreal gait kinematics. Red pandas exclusively used lateral sequence (LS) gaits and most frequently utilized LS lateral couplet gaits across terrestrial and arboreal substrates. Red pandas moved significantly slower (p < 0.001), and controlling for speed, had significantly greater relative stride length (p < 0.001), mean stride duration (p = 0.002), mean duty factor (p < 0.001), and mean number of supporting limbs (p < 0.001) during arboreal locomotion. Arboreal strides on inclined substrates were characterized by significantly faster relative speeds and increased limb phase values compared with those horizontal and declined substrates. These kinematics adjustments help to reduce substrate oscillations thereby promoting stability on potentially precarious arboreal substrates. Red panda limb phase values are similar to those of (primarily terrestrial) Carnivora examined to date. Despite the similarity in footfall patterns during arboreal and terrestrial locomotion, flexibility in other kinematic variables is important for semi-arboreal red pandas that must navigate disparate biomechanical challenges inherent to arboreal versus terrestrial locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura R Plocek
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Noah T Dunham
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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3
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Schapker NM, Chadwell BA, Young JW. Robust locomotor performance of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis) in response to simulated changes in support diameter and compliance. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 337:417-433. [PMID: 34985803 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Arboreal environments require overcoming navigational challenges not typically encountered in other terrestrial habitats. Supports are unevenly distributed and vary in diameter, orientation, and compliance. To better understand the strategies that arboreal animals use to maintain stability in this environment, laboratory researchers must endeavor to mimic those conditions. Here, we evaluate how squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis) adjust their locomotor mechanics in response to variation in support diameter and compliance. We used high-speed cameras to film two juvenile female monkeys as they walked across poles of varying diameters (5, 2.5, and 1.25 cm). Poles were mounted on either a stiff wooden base ("stable" condition) or foam blocks ("compliant" condition). Six force transducers embedded within the pole trackway recorded substrate reaction forces during locomotion. We predicted that squirrel monkeys would walk more slowly on narrow and compliant supports and adopt more "compliant" gait mechanics, increasing stride lengths, duty factors, and an average number of limbs gripping the support, while the decreasing center of mass height, stride frequencies, and peak forces. We observed few significant adjustments to squirrel monkey locomotor kinematics in response to changes in either support diameter or compliance, and the changes we did observe were often tempered by interactions with locomotor speed. These results differ from a similar study of common marmosets (i.e., Callithrix jacchus, with relatively poor grasping abilities), where variation in diameter and compliance substantially impacted gait kinematics. Squirrel monkeys' strong grasping apparatus, long and mobile tails, and other adaptations for arboreal travel likely facilitate robust locomotor performance despite substrate precarity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Schapker
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, Ohio, USA
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, USA
| | - Brad A Chadwell
- Department of Anatomy, Idaho College of Osteopathic Medicine (ICOM), Meridian, Idaho, USA
| | - Jesse W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, Ohio, USA
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, USA
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4
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Vassallo AI, Manzano A, Abdala V, Muzio RN. Can Anyone Climb? The Skills of a Non-specialized Toad and its Bearing on the Evolution of New Niches. Evol Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11692-021-09539-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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5
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Astley HC, Rieser JM, Kaba A, Paez VM, Tomkinson I, Mendelson JR, Goldman DI. Side-impact collision: mechanics of obstacle negotiation in sidewinding snakes. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:065005. [PMID: 33111708 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/abb415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Snakes excel at moving through cluttered environments, and heterogeneities can be used as propulsive contacts for snakes performing lateral undulation. However, sidewinding, which is often associated with sandy deserts, cuts a broad path through its environment that may increase its vulnerability to obstacles. Our prior work demonstrated that sidewinding can be represented as a pair of orthogonal body waves (vertical and horizontal) that can be independently modulated to achieve high maneuverability and incline ascent, suggesting that sidewinders may also use template modulations to negotiate obstacles. To test this hypothesis, we recorded overhead video of four sidewinder rattlesnakes (Crotalus cerastes) crossing a line of vertical pegs placed in the substrate. Snakes used three methods to traverse the obstacles: a Propagate Through behavior in which the lifted moving portion of the snake was deformed around the peg and dragged through as the snake continued sidewinding (115/160 runs), Reversal turns that reorient the snake entirely (35/160), or switching to Concertina locomotion (10/160). The Propagate Through response was only used if the anterior-most region of static contact would propagate along a path anterior to the peg, or if a new region of static contact could be formed near the head to satisfy this condition; otherwise, snakes could only use Reversal turns or switch to Concertina locomotion. Reversal turns allowed the snake to re-orient and either escape without further peg contact or re-orient into a posture amenable to using the Propagate Through response. We developed an algorithm to reproduce the Propagate Through behavior in a robophysical model using a modulation of the two-wave template. This range of behavioral strategies provides sidewinders with a versatile range of options for effectively negotiating obstacles in their natural habitat, as well as provide insights into the design and control of robotic systems dealing with heterogeneous habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry C Astley
- Biomimicry Research & Innovation Center, Department of Biology, University of Akron, 235 Carroll St.Akron, OH 44325, United States of America
| | - Jennifer M Rieser
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
| | - Abdul Kaba
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
| | - Veronica M Paez
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
| | - Ian Tomkinson
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
| | - Joseph R Mendelson
- Department of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
- Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, United States of America
| | - Daniel I Goldman
- Department of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, United States of America
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6
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Vega CM, Ashley-Ross MA. Tiger Salamanders ( Ambystoma tigrinum) Increase Foot Contact Surface Area on Challenging Substrates During Terrestrial Locomotion. Integr Org Biol 2020; 2:obaa029. [PMID: 33791568 PMCID: PMC7794020 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obaa029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals live in heterogeneous environments must navigate in order to forage or capture food, defend territories, and locate mates. These heterogeneous environments have a variety of substrates that differ in their roughness, texture, and other properties, all of which may alter locomotor performance. Despite such natural variation in substrate, many studies on locomotion use noncompliant surfaces that either are unrepresentative of the range of substrates experienced by species or underestimate maximal locomotor capabilities. The goal of this study was to determine the role of forefeet and hindfeet on substrates with different properties during walking in a generalized sprawling tetrapod, the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). Adult salamanders (n = 4, SVL = 11.2–14.6 cm) walked across level dry sand (DS), semi-soft plaster of Paris (PoP), wet sand (WS), and a hard, noncompliant surface (table)—substrates that vary in compliance. Trials were filmed in dorsal and anterior views. Videos were analyzed to determine the number of digits and surface area of each foot in contact with the substrate. The surface area of the forelimbs contacting the substrate was significantly greater on DS and PoP than on WS and the table. The surface area of the hindlimbs contacting the substrate was significantly greater on DS than on all other substrates. There were no significant differences in the time that the fore- or hindfeet were in contact with the substrate as determined by the number of digits. We conclude that salamanders modulate the use of their feet depending on the substrate, particularly on DS which is known to increase the mechanical work and energy expended during locomotion owing to the fluid nature of its loose particles. More studies are needed to test a wider range of substrates and to incorporate behavioral data from field studies to get a better understanding of how salamanders are affected by different substrates in their natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Vega
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, 1834 Wake Forest Road, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA
| | - Miriam A Ashley-Ross
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, 1834 Wake Forest Road, Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA
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7
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Not all fine-branch locomotion is equal: Grasping morphology determines locomotor performance on narrow supports. J Hum Evol 2020; 142:102767. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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8
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Dunham NT, McNamara A, Shapiro LJ, Phelps T, Young JW. Asymmetrical gait kinematics of free-ranging callitrichines in response to changes in substrate diameter and orientation. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb.217562. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.217562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Arboreal environments present considerable biomechanical challenges for animals moving and foraging among substrates varying in diameter, orientation, and compliance. Most studies of quadrupedal gait kinematics in primates and other arboreal mammals have focused on symmetrical walking gaits and the significance of diagonal sequence gaits. Considerably less research has examined asymmetrical gaits, despite their prevalence in small-bodied arboreal taxa. Here we examine whether and how free-ranging callitrichine primates adjust asymmetrical gait kinematics to changes in substrate diameter and orientation, as well as how variation in gait kinematics affects substrate displacement. We used high-speed video to film free-ranging Saguinus tripartitus and Cebuella pygmaea inhabiting the Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Ecuador. We found that Saguinus used bounding and half-bounding gaits on larger substrates versus gallops and symmetrical gaits on smaller substrates, and also shifted several kinematic parameters consistent with attenuating forces transferred from the animal to the substrate. Similarly, Cebuella shifted from high impact bounding gaits on larger substrates to using more half-bounding gaits on smaller substrates; however, kinematic adjustments to substrate diameter were not as profound as in Saguinus. Both species adjusted gait kinematics to changes in substrate orientation; however, gait kinematics did not significantly affect empirical measures of substrate displacement in either species. Due to their small body size, claw-like nails, and reduced grasping capabilities, callitrichines arguably represent extant biomechanical analogues for an early stage in primate evolution. As such, greater attention should be placed on understanding asymmetrical gait dynamics for insight into hypotheses concerning early primate locomotor evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Dunham
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, 4200 Wildlife Way, Cleveland, OH, 44109, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, 2080 Adelbert Rd, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Allison McNamara
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2201 Speedway Stop C3200, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2201 Speedway Stop C3200, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Taylor Phelps
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH, 44272, USA
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, 4209 St. Rt. 44, Rootstown, OH, 44272, USA
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9
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Graham M, Socha JJ. Going the distance: The biomechanics of gap-crossing behaviors. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 333:60-73. [PMID: 31111626 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The discontinuity of the canopy habitat is one of the principle differences between the terrestrial and arboreal environments. An animal's ability to cross gaps-to move from one support to another across an empty space-is influenced by both the physical structure of the gap and the animal's locomotor capabilities. In this review, we discuss the range of behaviors animals use to cross gaps. Focusing on the biomechanics of these behaviors, we suggest broad categorizations that facilitate comparisons between taxa. We also discuss the importance of gap distance in determining crossing behavior, and suggest several mechanical characteristics that may influence behavior choice, including the degree to which a behavior is dynamic, and whether or not the behavior is airborne. Overall, gap crossing is an important aspect of arboreal locomotion that deserves further in-depth attention, particularly given the ubiquity of gaps in the arboreal habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mal Graham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - John J Socha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia
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10
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Gaschk JL, Frère CH, Clemente CJ. Quantifying koala locomotion strategies: implications for the evolution of arborealism in marsupials. J Exp Biol 2019; 222:222/24/jeb207506. [PMID: 31848216 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.207506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The morphology and locomotor performance of a species can determine their inherent fitness within a habitat type. Koalas have an unusual morphology for marsupials, with several key adaptations suggested to increase stability in arboreal environments. We quantified the kinematics of their movement over ground and along narrow arboreal trackways to determine the extent to which their locomotion resembled that of primates, occupying similar niches, or basal marsupials from which they evolved. On the ground, the locomotion of koalas resembled a combination of marsupial behaviours and primate-like mechanics. For example, their fastest strides were bounding type gaits with a top speed of 2.78 m s-1 (mean 1.20 m s-1), resembling marsupials, while the relatively longer stride length was reflective of primate locomotion. Speed was increased using equal modification of stride length and frequency. On narrow substrates, koalas took longer but slower strides (mean 0.42 m s-1), adopting diagonally coupled gaits including both lateral and diagonal sequence gaits, the latter being a strategy distinctive among arboreal primates. The use of diagonally coupled gaits in the arboreal environment is likely only possible because of the unique gripping hand morphology of both the fore and hind feet of koalas. These results suggest that during ground locomotion, they use marsupial-like strategies but alternate to primate-like strategies when moving amongst branches, maximising stability in these environments. The locomotion strategies of koalas provide key insights into an independent evolutionary branch for an arboreal specialist, highlighting how locomotor strategies can convergently evolve between distant lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua L Gaschk
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD 4556, Australia
| | - Celine H Frère
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD 4556, Australia
| | - Christofer J Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD 4556, Australia
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11
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Nyakatura JA. Early primate evolution: insights into the functional significance of grasping from motion analyses of extant mammals. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John A Nyakatura
- AG Morphologie und Formengeschichte, Institut für Biologie, Humboldt Universität, Philippstraße, Berlin, Germany
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12
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Dunham NT, McNamara A, Shapiro L, Phelps T, Wolfe AN, Young JW. Locomotor kinematics of tree squirrels (
Sciurus carolinensis
) in free‐ranging and laboratory environments: Implications for primate locomotion and evolution. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2018; 331:103-119. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Dunham
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Allison McNamara
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Liza Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Taylor Phelps
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Adrienne N. Wolfe
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
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13
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Dunham NT, McNamara A, Shapiro L, Hieronymus T, Young JW. A user's guide for the quantitative analysis of substrate characteristics and locomotor kinematics in free‐ranging primates. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:569-584. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Dunham
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Allison McNamara
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Liza Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Tobin Hieronymus
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
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14
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Amir Abdul Nasir AF, Clemente CJ, Wynn ML, Wilson RS. Optimal running speeds when there is a trade‐off between speed and the probability of mistakes. Funct Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Biological Sciences The University of Queensland St Lucia QLD4072 Australia
- School of Biological and Health Sciences University of Sunshine Coast Sunshine Coast QLD4556 Australia
| | - Melissa L. Wynn
- School of Biological Sciences The University of Queensland St Lucia QLD4072 Australia
| | - Robbie S. Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences The University of Queensland St Lucia QLD4072 Australia
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15
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Young JW, Stricklen BM, Chadwell BA. Effects of support diameter and compliance on common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) gait kinematics. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:2659-72. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.140939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Locomotion is precarious in an arboreal habitat, where supports can vary in both diameter and level of compliance. Several previous studies have evaluated the influence of substrate diameter on the locomotor performance of arboreal quadrupeds. The influence of substrate compliance, however, has been mostly unexamined. Here, we used a multifactorial experimental design to investigate how perturbations in both diameter and compliance affect the gait kinematics of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus; N=2) moving over simulated arboreal substrates. We used 3D-calibrated video to quantify marmoset locomotion over a horizontal trackway consisting of variably sized poles (5, 2.5 and 1.25 cm in diameter), analyzing a total of 120 strides. The central portion of the trackway was either immobile or mounted on compliant foam blocks, depending on condition. We found that narrowing diameter and increasing compliance were both associated with relatively longer substrate contact durations, though adjustments to diameter were often inconsistent relative to compliance-related adjustments. Marmosets also responded to narrowing diameter by reducing speed, flattening center of mass (CoM) movements and dampening support displacement on the compliant substrate. For the subset of strides on the compliant support, we found that speed, contact duration and CoM amplitude explained >60% of the variation in substrate displacement over a stride, suggesting a direct performance advantage to these kinematic adjustments. Overall, our results show that compliant substrates can exert a significant influence on gait kinematics. Substrate compliance, and not just support diameter, should be considered a critical environmental variable when evaluating locomotor performance in arboreal quadrupeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
- Musculoskeletal Biology Research Focus Area, NEOMED, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44240, USA
| | - Bethany M. Stricklen
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
| | - Brad A. Chadwell
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
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16
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Shapiro LJ, Kemp AD, Young JW. Effects of Substrate Size and Orientation on Quadrupedal Gait Kinematics in Mouse Lemurs (
Microcebus murinus
). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 325:329-43. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Addison D. Kemp
- Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin Austin Texas
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology Northeast Ohio Medical University Rootstown Ohio
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17
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Mauro AA, Jayne CB. Perch compliance and experience affect destination choice of brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis). ZOOLOGY 2016; 119:113-118. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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18
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Jayne BC, Newman SJ, Zentkovich MM, Berns HM. Why arboreal snakes should not be cylindrical: body shape, incline and surface roughness have interactive effects on locomotion. J Exp Biol 2015; 218:3978-86. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.129379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Depending on animal size, shape, body plan and behaviour, variation in surface structure can affect the speed and ease of locomotion. The slope of branches and the roughness of bark both vary considerably, but their combined effects on the locomotion of arboreal animals are poorly understood. We used artificial branches with five inclines and five peg heights (≤40 mm) to test for interactive effects on the locomotion of three snake species with different body shapes. Unlike boa constrictors (Boa constrictor), corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) and brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) can both form ventrolateral keels, which are most pronounced in B. irregularis. Increasing peg height up to 10 mm elicited more of the lateral undulatory behaviour (sliding contact without gripping) rather than the concertina behaviour (periodic static gripping) and increased the speed of lateral undulation. Increased incline: (1) elicited more concertina locomotion, (2) decreased speed and (3) increased the threshold peg height that elicited lateral undulation. Boiga irregularis was the fastest species, and it used lateral undulation on the most surfaces, including a vertical cylinder with pegs only 1 mm high. Overall, B. constrictor was the slowest and used the most concertina locomotion, but this species climbed steep, smooth surfaces faster than P. guttatus. Our results illustrate how morphology and two different aspects of habitat structure can have interactive effects on organismal performance and behaviour. Notably, a sharper keel facilitated exploiting shorter protrusions to prevent slipping and provide propulsion, which became increasingly important as surface steepness increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce C. Jayne
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA
| | - Steven J. Newman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA
| | - Michele M. Zentkovich
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA
| | - H. Matthew Berns
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA
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19
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Moore TY, Organ CL, Edwards SV, Biewener AA, Tabin CJ, Jenkins FA, Cooper KL. Multiple phylogenetically distinct events shaped the evolution of limb skeletal morphologies associated with bipedalism in the jerboas. Curr Biol 2015; 25:2785-2794. [PMID: 26455300 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent rapid advances in experimental biology have expanded the opportunity for interdisciplinary investigations of the evolution of form and function in non-traditional model species. However, historical divisions of philosophy and methodology between evolutionary/organismal biologists and developmental geneticists often preclude an effective merging of disciplines. In an effort to overcome these divisions, we take advantage of the extraordinary morphological diversity of the rodent superfamily Dipodoidea, including the bipedal jerboas, to experimentally study the developmental mechanisms and biomechanical performance of a remarkably divergent limb structure. Here, we place multiple limb character states in a locomotor and phylogenetic context. Whereas obligate bipedalism arose just once in the ancestor of extant jerboas, we find that digit loss, metatarsal fusion, between-limb proportions, and within-hindlimb proportions all evolved independently of one another. Digit loss occurred three times through at least two distinct developmental mechanisms, and elongation of the hindlimb relative to the forelimb is not simply due to growth mechanisms that change proportions within the hindlimb. Furthermore, we find strong evidence for punctuated evolution of allometric scaling of hindlimb elements during the radiation of Dipodoidea. Our work demonstrates the value of leveraging the evolutionary history of a clade to establish criteria for identifying the developmental genetic mechanisms of morphological diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia Y Moore
- Department of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Chris L Organ
- Department of Earth Sciences, Montana State University, 226 Traphagen Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Scott V Edwards
- Department of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Andrew A Biewener
- Department of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Clifford J Tabin
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Farish A Jenkins
- Department of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Kimberly L Cooper
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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20
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Vanhooydonck B, Measey J, Edwards S, Makhubo B, Tolley KA, Herrel A. The effects of substratum on locomotor performance in lacertid lizards. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bieke Vanhooydonck
- Department of Biology; University of Antwerp; Universiteitsplein 1 B-2610 Antwerpen Belgium
| | - John Measey
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology; University of Stellenbosch; Matieland 7602 South Africa
| | - Shelley Edwards
- South African National Biodiversity Institute; Kirstenbosch Research Centre; Private Bag X7 Claremont 7735 Cape Town South Africa
- Department of Botany and Zoology; University of Stellenbosch; Matieland 7602 South Africa
| | - Buyisile Makhubo
- National Museum, Bloemfontein; PO Box 266 Bloemfontein 9300 South Africa
| | - Krystal A. Tolley
- South African National Biodiversity Institute; Kirstenbosch Research Centre; Private Bag X7 Claremont 7735 Cape Town South Africa
- Department of Botany and Zoology; University of Stellenbosch; Matieland 7602 South Africa
| | - Anthony Herrel
- Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité; UMR 7179 CNRS/MNHN; 57 rue Cuvier, Case postale 55 Paris 75231 Cedex 5 France
- Evolutionary Morphology of Vertebrates; Ghent University; K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35 B-9000 Gent Belgium
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21
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Jayne BC, Byrnes G. The effects of slope and branch structure on the locomotion of a specialized arboreal colubrid snake (Boiga irregularis). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 323:309-21. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bruce C. Jayne
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Cincinnati; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Greg Byrnes
- Department of Biology; Siena College; Loudonville New York
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22
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Wynn ML, Clemente C, Nasir AFAA, Wilson RS. Running faster causes disaster: trade-offs between speed, manoeuvrability and motor control when running around corners in northern quolls (Dasyurus hallucatus). J Exp Biol 2015; 218:433-9. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.111682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Movement speed is fundamental to all animal behaviour, yet no general framework exists for understanding why animals move at the speeds they do. Even during fitness-defining behaviours like running away from predators, an animal should select a speed that balances the benefits of high speed against the increased probability of mistakes. In this study, we explored this idea by quantifying trade-offs between speed, manoeuvrability and motor control in wild northern quolls (Dasyurus hallucatus) – a medium-sized carnivorous marsupial native to northern Australia. First, we quantified how running speed affected the probability of crashes when rounding corners of 45, 90 and 135 deg. We found that the faster an individual approached a turn, the higher the probability that they would crash, and these risks were greater when negotiating tighter turns. To avoid crashes, quolls modulated their running speed when they moved through turns of varying angles. Average speed for quolls when sprinting along a straight path was around 4.5 m s−1 but this decreased linearly to speeds of around 1.5 m s−1 when running through 135 deg turns. Finally, we explored how an individual's morphology affects their manoeuvrability. We found that individuals with larger relative foot sizes were more manoeuvrable than individuals with smaller relative foot sizes. Thus, movement speed, even during extreme situations like escaping predation, should be based on a compromise between high speed, manoeuvrability and motor control. We advocate that optimal – rather than maximal – performance capabilities underlie fitness-defining behaviours such as escaping predators and capturing prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L. Wynn
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Christofer Clemente
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | | | - Robbie S. Wilson
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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23
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Herrel A, Perrenoud M, Decamps T, Abdala V, Manzano A, Pouydebat E. The effect of substrate diameter and incline on locomotion in an arboreal frog. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 216:3599-605. [PMID: 24006344 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.090027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Frogs are characterized by a unique morphology associated with their saltatory lifestyle. Yet, arboreal species show morphological specializations relative to other ecological specialists allowing them to hold on to narrow substrates. However, almost nothing is known about the effects of substrate characteristics on locomotion in frogs. Here, we quantified the 3D kinematics of forelimb movement for frogs moving across branches of different diameters (1 and 40 mm) and two different inclines (horizontal and 45 deg uphill). Our results show that grip types differ while moving across substrates of different diameters and inclines. The kinematics of the wrist, elbow and shoulder as well as the body position relative to the substrate also showed significant effects of individual, diameter and incline. Kinematic differences involved duration, velocity of movement and angular excursions. Differences were most pronounced for the proximal joints of the forelimb and effects for substrate diameter were greater than for incline. Interestingly, the effects of diameter and incline on both grip type and kinematics are similar to what has been observed for lizards and primates, suggesting that the mechanics of narrow substrate locomotion drive the kinematics of movement independent of morphology and phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Herrel
- UMR 7179 C.N.R.S./M.N.H.N., Département d'Ecologie et de Gestion de la Biodiversité, 57 rue Cuvier, Case postale 55, 75231 Paris Cedex 5, France.
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Shapiro LJ, Young JW, VandeBerg JL. Body size and the small branch niche: Using marsupial ontogeny to model primate locomotor evolution. J Hum Evol 2014; 68:14-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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25
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Jayne BC, Baum JT, Byrnes G. Incline and peg spacing have interactive effects on the arboreal locomotor performance and kinematics of brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis). J Exp Biol 2013; 216:3321-31. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.086652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Summary
Many animals move using lateral undulations, but snakes are noteworthy for using this type of locomotion in an unusual diversity of environments, including trees in which both the spacing and orientation of branches vary considerably. Despite branches providing discrete locations for snakes to generate propulsive forces during lateral undulation, the consequences of branch spacing for the locomotion of snakes are poorly understood. Hence, we determined maximal speeds and kinematics of an arboreal snake (Boiga irregularis) crawling on horizontal and vertical cylinders with pegs that simulated different spacing between secondary branches. Peg spacing, perch orientation, and their two-way interaction term had widespread, significant effects on both performance and kinematics. For the horizontal surfaces, maximal locomotor speed occurred with intermediate peg spacing, and it was nearly twice as fast as for both the smallest and largest peg spacings. By contrast, the locomotor speeds of snakes on the vertical surfaces were unaffected by peg spacing, and they were uniformly slower than those for the horizontal surfaces. For both perch orientations, the number of pegs touched by the snake decreased as peg spacing increased, and while touching only one peg the snakes crawled with apparent ease and steady speed. The snakes crawled vertically with only one peg as quickly as they did using 2-10 pegs. Pegs on a horizontal cylinder are probably important both for propulsion of snakes and preventing long-axis rolling, whereas pegs protruding from vertical cylinders and those protruding from horizontal planar surfaces are probably used almost exclusively for propulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce C Jayne
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0006, USA.
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