Protein-cofactor binding and ultrafast electron transfer in riboflavin binding protein under the spatial confinement of nanoscopic reverse micelles

Bioactives Promiscuity of Mucin: Insight from Multi-Spectroscopic, Thermodynamic, and Molecular Dynamic Simulation Analyses

Mucosal drug delivery plays an increasing role in the clinical setting owing to mucin's advantageous biochemical and pharmacological properties. However, how this transport system recognizes different substrates remains unclear. In this study, we explore the mechanism of bioactive (quercetin and berberine) promiscuity of mucin using various spectroscopic techniques and molecular dynamics simulations. The UV-visible spectroscopy results and the decreased fluorescence intensity of mucin in the presence of the bioactive compounds via a static quenching mechanism confirmed ground-state complex formation between the bioactives and mucin. The binding constants (K_b) were evaluated at different temperatures to afford K_b values of ∼10⁴ Lmol^-1, demonstrating the moderate and reasonable affinity of the bioactives for mucin, yielding greater diffusion into the tissues. Thermodynamic analysis and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations demonstrate that mucin-bioactive complex formation occurs primarily because of electrostatic/ionic interactions, while hydrophobic interactions were also crucial in stabilizing the complex. Far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy showed that bioactive binding induced secondary structural changes in mucin. Sitemap and MD simulation indicated the principal binding site of mucin for the bioactives. This study also provides insight into the bioactives promiscuity of mucin in the presence of a crowded environment, which is relevant to the biological activity of mucin in vivo. An in vitro drug release study revealed that crowding assisted drug release in an enhanced burst manner compared with that in a dilute buffer system. This work thus provides fresh insight into drug absorption and distribution in the native cellular environment and helps direct new drug design and use in pharmaceutical and pharmacological fields.

Interfacial properties modulated by the water confinement in reverse micelles created by the ionic liquid-like surfactant bmim-AOT

The behavior of the interfacial water entrapped in reverse micelles (RMs) that were formed by the ionic liquid-like surfactant 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (bmim-AOT) was investigated with the use of UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry. The solvatochromism of two molecular probes, namely, 1-methyl-8-oxyquinolinium betaine (QB) and N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine copper(ii)acetylacetonate tetraphenylborate ([Cu(acac)(tmen)][B(C6H5)4]), was investigated. As a comparison, the analog RMs formed by sodium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (Na-AOT) were also explored. By varying the water content inside the RMs and consequently the different magnitude of the water-surfactant interactions at the interface, interesting properties were observed by comparing bmim-AOT and Na-AOT RMs. From the solvatochromic behavior of ([Cu(acac)(tmen)][B(C6H5)4]), we found that the interface in bmim-AOT RMs shows a smaller electron donating capacity than that in Na-AOT RMs. QB revealed that the interfacial region is a weaker hydrogen bond donor and less polar than the corresponding Na-AOT RMs. NMR experiments showed that the molecular motion of water in bmim-AOT RMs is less restricted than that of the water molecules confined in Na-AOT RMs. In summary, the results show how the nature of the bmim+ cation affects the interaction between the entrapped water and the RM interface, greatly modifying the interfacial water structure in comparison with the results known for Na-AOT.

Subtleties of catanionic surfactant reverse micelle assemblies revealed by a fluorescent molecular probe

In this work, the absorption and emission behavior of the cationic hemicyanine trans-4-[4-(dimethylamino)styryl]-N-methylpyridinium iodide (HC) in reverse micelles (RMs) formed by the catanionic surfactants benzyl-n-hexadecyldimethylammonium-1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (AOT-BHD) and cetyltrimethylammonium-1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (AOT-CTA) have been investigated. Our results show that the spectroscopic behavior of HC changes when the dye is dissolved in AOT-BHD or in AOT-CTA RMs. While HC undergoes an intramolecular charge-transfer process upon excitation in AOT-CTA RMs, in AOT-BHD RMs this process is inhibited due to a specific interaction between HC and the polar head group of the BHD⁺ cation. This implies that the chemical structure of CTA⁺ and BHD⁺ cations has a large impact on the excited stated from which HC emission occurs. Additionally, the structural difference between the two cations impacts on the water-RM interface interaction, which provides a way of controlling the solvation process in these RMs. Furthermore, differences in the interfacial fluidity between the two catanionic RMs is observed, a result that is particularly interesting with regard to these systems being used as nanoreactors.

Ultrafast 2D-IR spectroelectrochemistry of flavin mononucleotide

We demonstrate the coupling of ultrafast two-dimensional infrared (2D-IR) spectroscopy to electrochemistry in solution and apply it to flavin mononucleotide, an important cofactor of redox proteins. For this purpose, we designed a spectroelectrochemical cell optimized for 2D-IR measurements in reflection and measured the time-dependent 2D-IR spectra of the oxidized and reduced forms of flavin mononucleotide. The data show anharmonic coupling and vibrational energy transfer between different vibrational modes in the two redox species. Such information is inaccessible with redox-controlled steady-state FTIR spectroscopy. The wide range of applications offered by 2D-IR spectroscopy, such as sub-picosecond structure determination, IR band assignment via energy transfer, disentangling reaction mixtures through band connectivity in the 2D spectra, and the measurement of solvation dynamics and chemical exchange can now be explored under controlled redox potential. The development of this technique furthermore opens new horizons for studying the dynamics of redox proteins.

How the cation 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium impacts the interaction between the entrapped water and the reverse micelle interface created with an ionic liquid-like surfactant

The behavior of the interfacial water entrapped in reverse micelles (RMs) formed by the ionic liquid-like surfactant 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (bmim-AOT) dissolved in benzene (or chlorobenzene) was investigated using noninvasive techniques such as dynamic light scattering (DLS), static light scattering (SLS), FT-IR and (1)H NMR. The DLS and SLS results reveal the formation of discrete spherical and non-interacting water droplets stabilized by the bmim-AOT surfactant. Moreover, since the droplet size increases as the W0 (W0 = [water]/[surfactant]) value increases, water interacts with the RM interface. From FT-IR and (1)H NMR data, a weaker water-surfactant interaction in bmim-AOT RMs in comparison with the RMs created by sodium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (Na-AOT) is detected. Consequently, there are less water molecules interacting with the interface in bmim-AOT RMs, and their hydrogen bond network is not completely disrupted as they are in Na-AOT RMs. The results show how the nature of the new cation impacts the interaction between the entrapped water and the RM interface, modifying the interfacial water structure in comparison with the results known for Na-AOT.

Biomolecular Crowding Arising from Small Molecules, Molecular Constraints, Surface Packing, and Nano-Confinement

The effect of macromolecular crowding on the structure, dynamics, and reactivity of biomolecules is well established and the relevant research has been extensively reviewed. Herein, we focus our discussion on crowding effects arising from small cosolvent molecules and densely packed surface conditions. In addition, we highlight recent efforts that capitalize on the excluded volume effect for various tailored biochemical and biophysical applications. Specifically, we discuss how a targeted increase in local mass density can be exploited to gain insight into the folding dynamics of the protein of interest and how confinement via reverse micelles can be used to study a range of biophysical questions, from protein hydration dynamics to amyloid formation.

Functional assembly of protein fragments induced by spatial confinement

Natural proteins are often confined within their local microenvironments, such as three-dimensional confinement in organelles or two-dimensional confinement in lipid rafts on cytoplasmic membrane. Spatial confinement restricts proteins' entropic freedom, forces their lateral interaction, and induces new properties that the same proteins lack at the soluble state. So far, the phenomenon of environment-induced protein functional alteration still lacks a full illustration. We demonstrate here that engineered protein fragments, although being non-functional in solution, can be re-assembled within the nanometer space to give the full activity of the whole protein. Specific interaction between hexahistidine-tag (His-tag) and NiO surface immobilizes protein fragments on NiO nanoparticles to form a self-assembled protein "corona" on the particles inside the nanopores of mesoporous silica. Site-specific assembly forces a shoulder-by-shoulder orientation and promotes fragment-fragment interaction; this interaction together with spatial confinement of the mesopores results in functional re-assembly of the protein half fragments. To our surprise, a single half fragment of luciferase (non-catalytic in solution) exhibited luciferase activity when immobilized on NiO in the mesopores, in the absence of the complimentary half. This shows for the first time that spatial confinement can induce the folding of a half fragment, reconstitute the enzyme active site, and re-gain the catalytic capability of the whole protein. Our work thereby highlights the under-documented notion that aside from the chemical composition such as primary sequence, physical environment of a protein also determines its function.

Molecular crowding and early evolution

The environment of protocells might have been crowded with small molecules and functional and non-specific polymers. In addition to altering conformational equilibria, affecting reaction rates and changing the structure and activity of water, crowding might have enhanced the capabilities of protocells for evolutionary innovation through the creation of extended neutral networks in the fitness landscape.

Effect of the cationic surfactant moiety on the structure of water entrapped in two catanionic reverse micelles created from ionic liquid-like surfactants

The behavior of water entrapped in reverse micelles (RMs) formed by two catanionic ionic liquid-like surfactants, benzyl-n-hexadecyldimethylammonium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (AOT-BHD) and cetyltrimethylammonium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate (AOT-CTA), was investigated by using dynamic (DLS) and static (SLS) light scattering, FTIR, and (1)H NMR spectroscopy techniques. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report in which AOT-CTA has been used to create RMs and encapsulate water. DLS and SLS results revealed the formation of RMs in benzene and the interaction of water with the RM interface. From FTIR and (1)H NMR spectroscopy data, a difference in the magnitude of the water-catanionic surfactant interaction at the interface is observed. For the AOT-BHD RMs, a strong water-surfactant interaction can be invoked whereas for AOT-CTA this interaction seems to be weaker. Consequently, more water molecules interact with the interface in AOT-BHD RMs with a completely disrupted hydrogen-bond network, than in AOT-CTA RMs in which the water structure is partially preserved. We suggest that the benzyl group present in the BHD(+) moiety in AOT-BHD is responsible for the behavior of the catanionic interface in comparison with the interface created in AOT-CTA. These results show that a simple change in the cationic component in the catanionic surfactant promotes remarkable changes in the RMs interface with interesting consequences, in particular when using the systems as nanoreactors.

Measurement and control of pH in the aqueous interior of reverse micelles

The encapsulation of proteins and nucleic acids within the nanoscale water core of reverse micelles has been used for over 3 decades as a vehicle for a wide range of investigations including enzymology, the physical chemistry of confined spaces, protein and nucleic acid structural biology, and drug development and delivery. Unfortunately, the static and dynamical aspects of the distribution of water in solutions of reverse micelles complicate the measurement and interpretation of fundamental parameters such as pH. This is a severe disadvantage in the context of (bio)chemical reactions and protein structure and function, which are generally highly sensitive to pH. There is a need to more fully characterize and control the effective pH of the reverse micelle water core. The buffering effect of titratable head groups of the reverse micelle surfactants is found to often be the dominant variable defining the pH of the water core. Methods for measuring the pH of the reverse micelle aqueous interior using one-dimensional ¹H and two-dimensional heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy are described. Strategies for setting the effective pH of the reverse micelle water core are demonstrated. The exquisite sensitivity of encapsulated proteins to the surfactant, water content, and pH of the reverse micelle is also addressed. These results highlight the importance of assessing the structural fidelity of the encapsulated protein using multidimensional NMR before embarking upon a detailed structural and biophysical characterization.