High-throughput UHPLC-MS/MS method for the detection, quantification and identification of fifty-five anabolic and androgenic steroids in equine plasma

Endogenous nature of estra-4,9-diene-3,17-dione in entire male horses

Estra-4,9-diene-3,17-dione (dienedione) is an anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) sold as a bodybuilding supplement. It is prohibited in both human and equine sports. With no report of 4,9-diene configuration in endogenous steroids, dienedione has long been considered a synthetic AAS. Nevertheless, the reoccurring detection of dienedione in colt (entire male horse) urine samples lead to the investigation of its possible endogenous nature in horses. This paper describes (i) the detection of naturally occurring dienedione in colts, (ii) the conjugation study of dienedione and (iii) the population study of free and glucuronide-conjugated dienedione in colt urine. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of dienedione content in colt urine were performed, employing liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Qualitative analyses showed that dienedione was endogenous in colt urine and mainly in the form of glucuronide conjugates. Glucuronidation of dienedione was believed to happen at 3-enol leading to dienedione-3-glucuronide. Upon the population study of free and glucuronide-conjugated dienedione in colt urine samples (n = 175), the mean ± SD was determined to be 2.5 ± 3.5 ng/ml. The population data fitted a normal distribution after a fifth root transformation with the exclusion of one outlier by Grubb's test. A possible in-house threshold was proposed at 30 ng/ml of free and glucuronide-conjugated dienedione in colt urine associated with a risk factor of 1 in 14,269 (with a degree of freedom of 173). This is the first report of endogenous dienedione in entire male horses and the approach for controlling its potential misuse by using a threshold is also presented.

Early postmortem biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical alterations in skeletal muscles of rats exposed to boldenone undecylenate: Forensic implication

This study investigated the biochemical and histopathological alterations along with the immunoexpression pattern of heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) within 6 h postmortem (PM) in skeletal muscle of boldenone (BOL)-treated rats. Forty-eight male rats were divided into two groups; a control group received sesame oil (0.25 mL/kg bwt), and BOL group received 5 mg/kg bwt BOL. Both treatments were intramuscularly injected once a week for eight weeks. Rats were euthanized by cervical dislocation, and the skeletal muscle specimens were collected at zero-time, 2, 4, and 6 h PM for biochemical and histopathological evaluations. The results revealed that BOL treatment significantly increased pH, MDA, ATP, ADP, glycogen, and hydroxyproline values. Still, it decreased the GPX, GST, and lactic acid levels, and Hsp27 immunoexpression compared to the control group. With increasing postmortem interval (PMI), whether control or BOL-treated, a significant reduction in pH value, markers of muscular antioxidant status, ATP, ADP, glycogen, hydroxyproline levels, as well as Hsp27 immunoexpression but a significant increase in lipid peroxidation and lactic acid content were recorded. Of note, the interaction between BOL treatment and PMI had a significant effect on ATP, ADP, lactic acid, hydroxyproline, GST, MDA, and TAC levels. Conclusively, these findings signify BOL exposure's modifying effect on the energy content, oxidative status, and histological architecture of skeletal muscles in the early PMI that reflected in delaying the onset of rigor mortis. For forensic practitioners, these findings should be highly considered at estimating PMI in athletic, AAS-treated patients, and fattening animals.

Boldenone Undecylenate-Mediated Hepatorenal Impairment by Oxidative Damage and Dysregulation of Heat Shock Protein 90 and Androgen Receptors Expressions: Vitamin C Preventive Role

Boldenone Undecylenate (BLD) is a synthetic derivative of testosterone and a widely used anabolic androgenic steroid. The health risk of BLD use as a pharmaceutical or dietary supplement is still underestimated and under-reported. Vitamin C (VC) has been recognized as an antioxidant with prominent hepatorenal protective effects. This study investigated the possible preventive activity of VC against BLD-induced hepatorenal damage. Forty adult male Wistar rats were classified into five groups: control, vehicle control, VC (orally given 120 mg/kg b. wt./day), BLD (intramuscularly injected 5 mg/kg b. wt./week), and BLD + VC-treated groups. The experiment continued for eight weeks. Serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were measured. Serum contents of total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), globulin, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), and very-low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C) were also assayed. Urea, creatinine, and uric acid levels were determined together with sodium and potassium electrolytes measuring. Moreover, oxidative stress indicators including reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and glutathione reductase (GSR) as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were measured in both hepatic and renal tissues. Corresponding histological examination of renal and hepatic tissues was conducted. Besides, immunohistochemical evaluations for androgen receptors protein (AR) and heat shock protein 90 (Hsp 90) expressions were performed. BLD caused significant rises in serum ALT, AST, TP, ALB, TC, TG, LDL-C, VLDL-C, urea, creatinine, uric acid, potassium, and MDA levels. Further, BLD-injected rats showed significant declines in the serum levels of HDL-C, sodium, GSH, GPx, GST, and GSR. Besides, distinct histopathological perturbations were detected in renal and hepatic tissues of BLD-injected rats. AR and Hsp 90 immunoexpression were increased in hepatic and renal tissues. In contrast, VC significantly reversed the BLD-induced hepatorenal damage in co-treated rats but not ameliorated AR protein overexpression. VC could be an efficient preventive supplement for mitigating BLD-induced hepatorenal damage, possibly via controlling oxidative stress events.

Use of high resolution/accurate mass full scan/data-dependent acquisition for targeted/non-targeted screening in equine doping control

High-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) is a very powerful technology for equine doping control analysis. The more recently developed hybrid type of Orbitrap-based HRMS instrument allows for both targeted and non-targeted screening analyses in a single liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) run. In the present study, an LC-HRMS/MS method was developed and validated to detect prohibited substances in equine sports. The substances were recovered from equine plasma by liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) using methyl tert-butyl ether and were separated on a C18 reversed-phase column using mobile phases of 5 mM ammonium formate and acetonitrile. A 7.5 min LC gradient was employed to elute substances and results indicated that the LC method generated sharp and symmetric chromatographic peaks. An in-house equine doping compound database and a spectral library were built to increase method specificity for substances of interest. Five criteria, i.e. accurate mass, retention time, isotope pattern, selected HRMS/MS fragment ions (compound database) and HRMS/MS spectra (spectral library), were employed for targeted screening. We utilized these criteria to validate targeted detection of 451 substances within our in-house equine doping compound database. By using all five criteria in screening, the false screening positive rate is significantly reduced. A screening strategy and a Microsoft Excel macro were developed to facilitate interpretation and reporting of results. As the simultaneous acquisition of the full scan HRMS data provides the opportunity for retrospective non-targeted analysis, our findings highlight the use of this novel methodology as a simple, rapid, and reliably reproducible strategy to meet the challenge of identifying an increasing number of doping substances that could potentially impact the integrity of the horse racing community.

Doping detection in animals: A review of analytical methodologies published from 1990 to 2019

Despite the impressive innate physical abilities of horses, camels, greyhounds, or pigeons, doping agents might be administered to these animals to improve their performance. To control these illegal practices, anti-doping analytical methodologies have been developed. This review compiles the analytical methods that have been published for the detection of prohibited substances administered to animals involved in sports over 30 years. Relevant papers meeting the search criteria that discussed analytical methods aiming to detect and/or quantify doping substances in animal biological matrices published from 1990 to 2019 were considered. A total of 317 studies were included, of which 298 were related to horses, demonstrating significant advances toward the development of doping detection methods for equine sports. However, analytical methods for the detection of doping agents in sports involving other species are lacking. Due to enhanced accuracy and specificity, chromatographic analysis coupled to mass spectrometry detection is preferred over immunoassays. Regarding biological matrices, blood and urine remain the first choice, although alternative biological matrices, such as hair and feces, have been considered. With the increasing number and type of drugs used as doping agents, the analytes addressed in the published papers are diverse. It is very important to continue to detect and quantify these drugs, recognizing those that are most frequently used, in order to punish the abusers, protect animals' health, and ensure a healthier and genuine competition.

Application of a non-target variable data independent workflow (vDIA) for the screening of prohibited substances in doping control testing

A non-target variable Data Independent Acquisition (vDIA) workflow based on accurate mass measurements using a Q Exactive OrbiTrap is presented for the first time for equine doping control testing. The vDIA workflow uses a combination of MS1 events (1 to 2) and multiple vDIA events to cover the analytes of interest. The workflow basically captures a digital image of a sample allowing all relevant MS1 and MS2 data to be recorded. In theory, the workflow can accommodate an unlimited number of analytes as long as they are amenable to the sample extraction protocol and fall within the mass limits of the workflow. Additional targets fulfilling the above requirements can be added without changing any settings. The performance of the vDIA workflow was illustrated by applying it to two screening methods in horse urine, with one workflow covering 331 basic drugs and the other covering 45 quaternary ammonium drugs (QADs). Both screening methods have good detection sensitivity with 84% of the basic drugs having Limits of Detection (LoDs) of ≤ 1 ng/mL and 84% of the QADs having LoDs of ≤ 0.4 ng/mL. Other method characteristics including retention reproducibility, method precision and false hit rate will also be presented.

Screening for twenty-eight target anabolic-androgenic steroids in protein supplements using QuEChERS extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are very potent muscle builders, and professional sportsmen often take protein supplements to improve their performance. Several studies have emphasised that protein supplements may contain undeclared AASs banned by the International Olympic Committee/World Anti-Doping Agency. The widespread occurrence and abuse of contaminated protein supplements is extremely dangerous because of their side effects. To minimise the chances of an unattended positive doping test or to avoid serious health problems, adequate screening methods for the detection of a wide range of steroids is essential. To address this requirement, a rapid and effective modified QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) method was developed and validated to screen and quantify the simultaneous analysis of twenty-eight AASs in protein supplements using LC-MS/MS. The validated method was applied to 198 protein supplements collected from on-line and, off-line markets, and direct purchase from overseas between 2019 and 2020. Of the 198 samples, two samples contained testosterone and stanozolol at concentrations of 0.27 μg/g and 0.023 μg/g, respectively. In addition, 5α-hydroxylaxogenin was detected for the first time in three products purchased in Korea from overseas. The modified QuEChERS method was established and successfully applied to screen and determine AASs as a measure of continuous control and supervision in protein supplements.

Evaluation of anabolic steroid induced renal damage with sonography in bodybuilders

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of anabolic steroids on kidneys in bodybuilders.

METHODS

Twenty-two bodybuilders were included in the study. Participants were divided into three groups according to the scheme of steroid usage: group 1 (N.=8, intramuscular 500 mg testosterone enanthate, intramuscular 400 mg nandrolone decanoate and oral 40 mg methandrostenolone for 12 weeks), group 2 (N.=7, intramuscular 500 mg testosterone enanthate, intramuscular 300 mg nandrolone decanoate and intramuscular 300 mg boldenone undecylenate for 16 weeks), and group 3 (N.=7, no steroid intake). Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (Cr), urine micro-albumin and electrolyte levels were measured. Renal volume, cortical thickness and echogenicity were obtained in ultrasonographic scans.

RESULTS

Renal volume, cortical thickness, echogenicity and protein intake value were significantly higher in group 2 than group 1 and 3. Plasma levels of BUN and Cr in group 2 were significantly higher than other groups (P˂0.001). Urine microalbumin and electrolyte levels were normal in all groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study indicate that high protein intake, steroid usage, particularly the schemes, including boldenone undecylenate increases cortical echogenicity, thickness of renal parenchyma and renal volume in bodybuilders.

Applications and challenges in using LC–MS/MS assays for quantitative doping analysis

LC–MS/MS is useful for qualitative and quantitative analysis of ‘doped’ biological samples from athletes. LC–MS/MS-based assays at low-mass resolution allow fast and sensitive screening and quantification of targeted analytes that are based on preselected diagnostic precursor–product ion pairs. Whereas LC coupled with high-resolution/high-accuracy MS can be used for identification and quantification, both have advantages and challenges for routine analysis. Here, we review the literature regarding various quantification methods for measuring prohibited substances in athletes as they pertain to World Anti-Doping Agency regulations.

Discrepancy between radioimmunoassay and high performance liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry for the analysis of androstenedione

The discrepancy of results for the quantification of androstenedione in human serum between a radioimmunoassay (RIA) method and high performance liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was investigated. RIA overestimated concentrations compared to LC-MS/MS on 59 clinical samples (RIA=1.79×LC-MS/MS+0.94). RIA kit and LC-MS/MS calibrants were also determined by both methods. The RIA performed with improved accuracy on the calibrants (RIA=1.35×LC-MS/MS-0.28). Lipid, protein, electrolyte content, and pH of the two sets of calibrants were further investigated. The RIA calibrants contained little lipid material, while the LC-MS/MS calibrant material contained the same levels expected in normal serum/plasma. The pH and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) values were different between the RIA calibrants and the LC-MS/MS calibrant material (SHBG, 31±2 and 38±2nmol/l; pH, 8.27±0.18 and 8.66±0.03, respectively). No correlation was observed between androstenedione RIA and LC-MS/MS discrepancy and lipid or protein. LC-MS/MS sample preparation was tested for the removal of protein-bound material and recovery determined (99-108%). The corresponding RIA results overestimated androstenedione by 52-174% compared to LC-MS/MS. The results here demonstrate that LC-MS/MS is the more accurate method.

Histopathological alterations after a growth promoter boldenone injection in rabbits

Boldenone (BOL) is a derivative of the testosterone that has dual effects on humans, both directly and indirectly; directly as injection to build muscles and indirectly as through consuming meat of animals that where treated with BOL. However, the action of these steroids on different body organs structures is still unclear; therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of the intramuscular injection of BOL undecylenate on the different organ structures. A total of 10 adult New Zealand rabbits were divided into two main groups, the first group was the control group, which includes animals that were injected intramuscularly with olive oil and the second group included animals that received two intramuscular injections of 5 mg/kg body weight BOL dissected after 6 weeks. Our results showed that intramuscular injection of rabbits with BOL showed hypertrophy in both skeletal and cardiac muscles, disturbances of the hepatocytes radially arranged cords with multifocal hepatocellular vacuolations in the liver, glomerulus mass reduction with multifocal glomerular injury in the kidney, disturbances of the cycle of spermatogenesis in the testes. In conclusion, using BOL, while preparing for a young bodybuilding contest, may cause an alteration in the histological structure of most of the body organs; these findings suggested that especially young people who misuse anablic androgenic steroids should be careful if they want to use such steroids to enhance their strength and endurance.

A validated stability-indicating TLC-densitometric method for the determination of stanozolol in pharmaceutical formulations

BACKGROUND

Stanozolol is a synthetic derivative of dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and one of the frequently detected anabolic steroids in doping analysis. The current work describes the development and validation of the stability-indicating TLC-densitometric method for sensitive and specific estimation of stanozolol even its degradation product being there. Precoated silica gel TLC aluminium plates were utilized as the stationary phase and the eluent comprised of petroleum ether: acetone (6:4, v/v). Densitometric analysis of stanozolol was achieved at λmax 750 nm in the absorbance mode after staining with phosphomolybdic acid (PMA). Stress degradation of stanozolol was carried out under various reaction conditions including acid, base and neutral hydrolysis, wet and dry heating treatment, oxidation, and photo-degradation. Resulted stress samples and pharmaceutical products were analyzed with the developed TLC method.

RESULTS

This system showed a compact spot for stanozolol at Rf value of 0.46 ± 0.02. The data of linear regression analysis indicated a good linear relationship over the range of 200-1200 ng/spot concentrations. The method was validated for robustness, precision and recovery. The LOD and LOQ were 1.6 and 5.1 ng/spot, respectively. Under various stressed conditions, stanozolol showed degradation only under acidic hydrolysis. Peak of a degraded product was well resolved from the stanazolol with reasonably different Rf value and identified as 17, 17-dimethyl-l8-nor-5α-androst-13(14)-eno [3,2c] pyrazole through 1D- and 2D-NMR spectroscopic techniques and ESI-QqTOF-MS/MS analysis.

CONCLUSION

Result reflected that the stanozolol is majorly affected by the acidic condition. Statistical analysis indicated the application of the developed stability-indicating TLC-densitometric method for routine analysis of stanozolol in the presence of its degradation product.

Tandem mass spectrometry approach for the investigation of the steroidal metabolism: structure-fragmentation relationship (SFR) in anabolic steroids and their metabolites by ESI-MS/MS analysis

Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) was used to investigate the effect of different substitutions introduced during metabolism on fragmentation patterns of four anabolic steroids including methyltestosterone, methandrostenolone, cis-androsterone and adrenosterone, along with their metabolites. Collision-induced dissociation (CID) analysis was performed to correlate the major product ions of 19 steroids with structural features. The analysis is done to portray metabolic alteration, such as incorporation or reduction of double bonds, hydroxylations, and/or oxidation of hydroxyl moieties to keto functional group on steroidal skeleton which leads to drastically changed product ion spectra from the respective classes of steroids, therefore, making them difficult to identify. The comparative ESI-MS/MS study also revealed some characteristic peaks to differentiate different steroidal metabolites and can be useful for the unambiguous identification of anabolic steroids in biological fluid. Moreover, LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis of fermented extract of methyltestosterone, obtained by Macrophomina phaseolina was also investigated.

Quantification of clenbuterol at trace level in human urine by ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Clenbuterol is a β2 agonist agent with anabolic properties given by the increase in the muscular mass in parallel to the decrease of the body fat. For this reason, the use of clenbuterol is forbidden by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in the practice of sport. This compound is of particular interest for anti-doping authorities and WADA-accredited laboratories due to the recent reporting of risk of unintentional doping following the eating of meat contaminated with traces of clenbuterol in some countries. In this work, the development and the validation of an ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method for the quantification of clenbuterol in human urine is described. The analyte was extracted from urine samples by liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) in basic conditions using tert butyl-methyl ether (TBME) and analyzed by UHPLC-MS/MS with a linear gradient of acetonitrile in 9min only. The simple and rapid method presented here was validated in compliance with authority guidelines and showed a limit of quantification at 5pg/mL and a linearity range from 5pg/mL to 300pg/mL. Good trueness (85.8-105%), repeatability (5.7-10.6% RSD) and intermediate precision (5.9-14.9% RSD) results were obtained. The method was then applied to real samples from eighteen volunteers collecting urines after single oral doses administration (1, 5 and 10μg) of clenbuterol-enriched yogurts.

Histopathological and immunohistochemical changes in the testes of rabbits after injection with the growth promoter boldenone

Recently, boldenone (androgenic steroid) is used in improvement of the growth and food conversion in food-producing animals. In addition, it is used by bodybuilders during both off-season and precontest, where it is well known for increasing vascularity while preparing for a bodybuilding contest. The present study was designed to investigate the possible effect of growth promoter boldenone undecylenate on the structure and functions of rabbit testes. A total of 32 adult New Zealand rabbits were divided into 4 groups. The first group in the control group includes animals that were intramuscularly injected with olive oil and dissected after 3 weeks. Three experimental groups include animals that receive 1, 2, and 3 intramuscular injections of 5 mg/kg body weight boldenone, and dissected after 3, 6, and 9 weeks, respectively. Treating rabbits with boldenone increased the testosterone levels compared to the control group. Seminiferous tubules of the rabbit testis treated with boldenone showed reduced development and degeneration of the germinal epithelium, leading to debris and syncytial cell formation in the lumina of seminiferous tubules. Our immunohistochemical results indicated severe reduction in proliferating cell nuclear antigen-positive spermatogonia in boldenone-treated animals as compared to the control group. These findings explain the common phenomena among athletics and bodybuilders who suffer from infertility as they were injected with some drugs such as steroids (boldenone) to build muscles.

Changes in the hepatic and renal structure and function after a growth promoter boldenone injection in rabbits

Boldenone is an androgenic steroid that improves the growth and food conversion in food producing animals. In most countries worldwide, this anabolic steroid is forbidden for meat production. Recently, it is used by bodybuilders in both off-season and pre-contest, where it is well known for increasing vascularity while preparing for a bodybuilding contest. Therefore, our study was designed to investigate the possible effect of using growth promoter boldenone undecylenate on the rabbit liver and kidney structure and functions. Thirty-two adult New Zealand rabbits were divided into four groups. Control group includes animals that injected intramuscularly with olive oil and dissected after 3 weeks. Three experimental groups include animals that receive one, two and three intramuscular injections of 5 mg/kg body weight boldenone, respectively and dissected after 3, 6 and 9 weeks respectively, where the interval of each dose of boldenone was three weeks. Intramuscular injection of rabbits with boldenone increased the serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT), urea and creatinine compared with the control group. We also found significant increases in the total protein, total lipid, nitric oxide (NO), superoxide dismutase activity (SOD), glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in liver and kidney tissues compared with the control group. Intramuscular injection of rabbits with boldenone exhibited mild to severe histopathological lesions in liver tissue as hepatocellular vacuolation in the centrilobular region and sinusoids and in the kidney, the renal glomerulei had completely lost their typical shape with the appearance of some vacuoles of different shapes and sizes with markedly congested sinusoidal and dilated blood vessels. These findings suggest that misuse of growth promoter boldenone undecylenate may contribute to continuous damage of the hepatic and renal function and structure that may lead to a progressive hepatic and renal diseases, so people should be careful if they want to use such steroids to enhance their strength and endurance.

Ex vivo spontaneous generation of 19-norandrostenedione and nandrolone detected in equine plasma and urine

19-Norandrostenedione (NAED) and nandrolone are anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs). Nandrolone was regarded solely as a synthetic AAS until the 1980s when trace concentrations of apparently endogenous nandrolone were detected in urine samples obtained from intact male horses (stallions). Since then, its endogenous origin has been reported in boars and bulls; endogenous NAED and nandrolone have been identified in plasma and urine samples collected from stallions. More recently, however, it was suggested that NAED and nandrolone detected in urine samples from stallions are primarily artifacts due to the analytical procedure. The present study was undertaken to determine whether NAED and nandrolone detected in plasma and urine samples collected from stallions are truly endogenous or artifacts from sample processing. To answer this question, fresh plasma and urine samples from ≥8 stallions were analyzed for the two AASs, soon after collection, by liquid chromatography hyphenated to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). NAED and nandrolone were not detected in fresh plasma samples but detected in the same samples post storage. Concentrations of both AASs increased with storage time, and the increases were greater at a higher storage temperature (37°C versus 4°C, and ambient temperature versus 4°C). Although NAED was detected in some fresh stallion urine samples, its concentration (<407 pg/mL) was far lower (<0.4%) than that in the same samples post storage (at ambient temperature for 15 days). Nandrolone was not detected in most of fresh urine samples but detected in the same samples post storage. Based on these results, it is concluded that all NAED and nandrolone detected in stored plasma samples of stallions and most of them in the stored urine samples are not from endogenous origins but spontaneously generated during sample storage, most likely from spontaneous decarboxylation of androstenedione-19-oic acid and testosterone-19-oic acid. To our knowledge, it is the first time that all NAED and nandrolone detected in plasma of stallions and most of them detected in the urine have been shown to be spontaneously generated in vitro during sample storage. This finding would have significant implications with regard to the regulation of the two steroids in horse racing.

Challenges and benefits of endogenous steroid analysis by LC–MS/MS

Quantification of endogenous hormonal steroids and their precursors is essential for diagnosing a wide range of endocrine disorders. Historically, these analyses have been carried out using immunoassay, but such methods are problematic, especially for low-concentration analytes, due to assay interference by other endogenous steroids. MS offers improved specificity over immunoassay and can be highly sensitive. GC–MS, with use of stable isotopically labeled internal standards, is considered the ‘gold standard’ method for serum steroid analysis. GC–MS is the method of choice for profiling steroid metabolites in urine, but these techniques are not appropriate for routine use in clinical laboratories owing to a need for extensive sample preparation, as well as analytical expertise. LC–MS/MS compares well to GC–MS in terms of accuracy, precision and sensitivity, but allows simplified sample preparation. While most publications have featured only one or a limited number of steroids, we consider that steroid paneling (which we propose as the preferred term for multitargeted steroid analysis) has great potential to enable clinicians to make a definitive diagnosis. It is adaptable for use in a number of matrices, including serum, saliva and dried blood spots. However, LC–MS/MS-based steroid analysis is not straightforward, and understanding the chemical and analytical processes involved is essential for implementation of a robust clinical service. This article discusses specific challenges in the measurement of endogenous steroids using LC–MS/MS, and provides examples of the benefits it offers.

Deterioration of glomerular endothelial surface layer and the alteration in the renal function after a growth promoter boldenone injection in rabbits

Boldenone is an anabolic steroid developed for veterinary use. Recently, it is used by bodybuilders in both off-season and precontest, where it is well known for increasing vascularity while preparing for a bodybuilding contest. However, the side effect of this steroid on the human health is still unclear. Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate the possible effect of the growth promoter, boldenone undecylenate, on the function and structure of the rabbit’s kidneys. A total of 36 adult New Zealand rabbits were divided into 4 groups. Control group includes animals that were injected intramuscularly with olive oil and dissected after 3 weeks. Three experimental groups include animals that receive one, two and three intramuscular injections of 5 mg/kg body weight boldenone, and dissected after 3, 6, and 9 weeks, respectively, and the interval of each dose of boldenone was 3 weeks. The biochemical analysis of the blood serum of treated rabbit showed a significant increase in the total protein, urea and creatinine concentrations, with a significant decrease in albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio. At the same time, a significant glomerulus mass reduction that accompanied with the expression of CD34, a marker for endothelial cells deterioration, was also determined. The incidence of the glomerulosclerosis was significantly increased compared with the control group (0.46 ± 0.05, p < 0.05). The glomerulosclerosis scores were 1.32 ± 0.10, 2.14 ± 0.11 and 3.02 ± 0.09 in groups 2, 3 and 4, respectively. These findings suggest that misuse of the boldenone undecylenate may contribute to the occurrence of a chronic renal injury that may lead to a progressive renal failure.

Analytical aspects in doping control: challenges and perspectives

Since the first anti-doping tests in the 1960s, the analytical aspects of the testing remain challenging. The evolution of the analytical process in doping control is discussed in this paper with a particular emphasis on separation techniques, such as gas chromatography and liquid chromatography. These approaches are improving in parallel with the requirements of increasing sensitivity and selectivity for detecting prohibited substances in biological samples from athletes. Moreover, fast analyses are mandatory to deal with the growing number of doping control samples and the short response time required during particular sport events. Recent developments in mass spectrometry and the expansion of accurate mass determination has improved anti-doping strategies with the possibility of using elemental composition and isotope patterns for structural identification. These techniques must be able to distinguish equivocally between negative and suspicious samples with no false-negative or false-positive results. Therefore, high degree of reliability must be reached for the identification of major metabolites corresponding to suspected analytes. Along with current trends in pharmaceutical industry the analysis of proteins and peptides remains an important issue in doping control. Sophisticated analytical tools are still mandatory to improve their distinction from endogenous analogs. Finally, indirect approaches will be discussed in the context of anti-doping, in which recent advances are aimed to examine the biological response of a doping agent in a holistic way.