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Salazar EJ, Guerrero MJ, Villaquiran JA, Suárez K, Cevallos J. Development of enhanced primer sets for detection of Norovirus and Hepatitis A in food samples from Guayaquil (Ecuador) by reverse transcriptase-heminested PCR. BIONATURA 2023. [DOI: 10.21931/rb/2023.08.01.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NV) is an infectious biological agent that causes gastrointestinal problems of the original nonbacterial appearance of foodborne illnesses. The genotype of NV responsible for the most frequent NV disease outbreaks is GII, accounting for 60–80% of the cases. Moreover, original and new NV variants are continuously emerging, concurrent with the recent global increase in NV infections. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is another foodborne pathogen frequently implicated in acute gastroenteritis cases around the world. The virus is transmitted among humans via the fecal-oral route, and infection by HAV causes the most severe form of viral illness acquired from foods. In this study, we implemented primer sets to detect NV genotypes I and II. We also developed primer sets for the detection of HAV. The primers were used in a heminested reverse transcriptase PCR (hnRT-PCR) protocol that was rapid and sensitive for detecting NVG1, NVGII and HAV virus in food. The hnRT-PCR was applied successfully to strawberries and spinach obtained from a local fresh-food market, where we could see NVGI, NVGII and HAV.
Keywords: Norovirus1; Hepatitis A2; gastroenteritis3; genotypes4; NVG15; NVGII6; hnRT-PCR7.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. J. Salazar
- Centro de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas del Ecuador, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador; 2 Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Técnica de Babahoyo, Km 7.5 Vía Babahoyo - Montalvo
| | - M. J. Guerrero
- Facultad Ciencias de la Vida, Laboratorio para Investigaciones Biomédicas, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - J. A. Villaquiran
- Facultad Ciencias de la Vida, Laboratorio para Investigaciones Biomédicas, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - K.S. Suárez
- Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Ciencias de la Producción, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador
| | - J.M. Cevallos
- Centro de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas del Ecuador, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador ; Facultad Ciencias de la Vidas, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Km 30.5 Vía Perimetral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador
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2
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Dynamics of norovirus genotype change and early characterization of variants in children with diarrhea in central Tunisia, 2001-2012. Arch Virol 2021; 167:99-107. [PMID: 34741201 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05290-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoVs), especially GII.4 strains, are a major cause of gastroenteritis epidemics in both children and adults. Stool samples were collected from 113 Tunisian children with acute gastroenteritis in 2001 and 2002 and were retrospectively tested for HuNoVs. Fifteen (13.2%) of the 113 samples were positive for HuNoVs, all of which were genogroup II strains, and the GII.4-2004/Hunter variant was predominant (67%). We reconstituted the temporal circulation of HuNoV strains in central Tunisia between 2003 and 2012 using HuNoV isolates reported in our previous studies. A comparative analysis showed a dynamic change in the molecular profile of the HuNoV strains over a 12-year period. We found that GII.4-2004/Hunter strains were circulating as early as June 2002 and that GIX.1[GII.P15] HuNoVs were already circulating four years before this genotype was first reported in Japan in 2006. Our data suggest that epidemic strains of HuNoV circulate for several years in the pediatric population before becoming predominant. This study suggests that children from low-income countries with poor sanitation may play a significant role in the molecular evolution of noroviruses and the global emergence of new epidemic strains.
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Nonthabenjawan N, Boonyos P, Phattanawiboon B, Towayunanta W, Chuntrakool K, Ngaopravet K, Ruchusatsawat K, Uppapong B, Sangkitporn S, Mekada E, Matsuura Y, Tatsumi M, Mizushima H. Identification of GII.14[P7] norovirus and its genomic mutations from a case of long-term infection in a post-symptomatic individual. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2020; 86:104612. [PMID: 33137471 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus is a leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Norovirus shedding typically lasts one week to one month after the onset of diarrhea in immunocompetent hosts. The occurrence of mutations in the genome during infection has contributed to the evolution of norovirus. It has been suggested that genomic mutations in the P2-domain of capsid protein VP1, the major antigenic site for virus clearance, are involved in the evasion of host immunity and prolonged shedding of norovirus. In our previous study, we found a case of long-term shedding of GII.14 norovirus in a post-symptomatic immunocompetent individual that lasted about three months. In this study, we characterized the genomic sequence of the GII.14 strain to gain insight into the context of long-term shedding. By sequencing a 4.8 kb region of the genome corresponding to half of ORF1 and the entire ORF2 and ORF3, which encode several non-structural proteins and the structural proteins VP1 and VP2, the GII.14 strain was found to be classified as recombinant GII.14[P7]. Six point-mutations occurred during the three-month period of infection in a time-dependent manner in the genomic regions encoding RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, VP1, and VP2. Three of the six mutations were sense mutations, but no amino acid substitution was identified in the P2-domain of VP1. These results suggest that there is a mechanism by which long-term shedding of norovirus occurs in immunocompetent individuals independent of P2-domain mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nutthawan Nonthabenjawan
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Patcharaporn Boonyos
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Benjarat Phattanawiboon
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | | | | | | | - Kriangsak Ruchusatsawat
- National Institute of Health, Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Ballang Uppapong
- National Institute of Health, Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Somchai Sangkitporn
- National Institute of Health, Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Eisuke Mekada
- Research and Education Promotion Foundation, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yoshiharu Matsuura
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masashi Tatsumi
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Hiroto Mizushima
- Thailand-Japan Research Collaboration Center on Emerging and Re-emerging Infections, Nonthaburi, Thailand.
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Ludwig-Begall LF, Mauroy A, Thiry E. Norovirus recombinants: recurrent in the field, recalcitrant in the lab - a scoping review of recombination and recombinant types of noroviruses. J Gen Virol 2018; 99:970-988. [PMID: 29906257 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Noroviruses are recognized as the major global cause of sporadic and epidemic non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans. Molecular mechanisms driving norovirus evolution are the accumulation of point mutations and recombination. Intragenotypic recombination has long been postulated to be a driving force of GII.4 noroviruses, the predominant genotype circulating in humans for over two decades. Increasingly, emergence and re-emergence of different intragenotype recombinants have been reported. The number and types of norovirus recombinants remained undefined until the 2007 Journal of General Virology research article 'Norovirus recombination' reported an assembly of 20 hitherto unclassified intergenotypic norovirus recombinant types. In the intervening decade, a host of novel recombinants has been analysed. New recombination breakpoints have been described, in vitro and in vivo studies supplement in silico analyses, and advances have been made in analysing factors driving norovirus recombination. This work presents a timely overview of these data and focuses on important aspects of norovirus recombination and its role in norovirus molecular evolution. An overview of intergenogroup, intergenotype, intragenotype and 'obligatory' norovirus recombinants as detected via in silico methods in the field is provided, enlarging the scope of intergenotypic recombinant types to 80 in total, and notably including three intergenogroup recombinants. A recap of advances made studying norovirus recombination in the laboratory is given. Putative drivers and constraints of norovirus recombination are discussed and the potential link between recombination and norovirus zoonosis risk is examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa F Ludwig-Begall
- 1Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, FARAH Research Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège University, B43b, Quartier Vallée 2, Avenue de Cureghem, 10, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Axel Mauroy
- 2Staff direction for risk assessment, Control Policy, Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain, Blv du Jardin Botanique 55, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Etienne Thiry
- 1Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, FARAH Research Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège University, B43b, Quartier Vallée 2, Avenue de Cureghem, 10, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
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Detection and molecular characterization of enteric viruses in children with acute gastroenteritis in Northern Italy. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 60:35-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Kabue JP, Meader E, Hunter PR, Potgieter N. Genetic characterisation of Norovirus strains in outpatient children from rural communities of Vhembe district/South Africa, 2014-2015. J Clin Virol 2017; 94:100-106. [PMID: 28783578 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Norovirus (NoV) is now the most common cause of both outbreaks and sporadic non-bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. However, data supporting the role of NoV in diarrheal disease are limited in the African continent. OBJECTIVES This study investigates the distribution of NoV genotypes circulating in outpatient children from rural communities of Vhembe district/South Africa. STUDY DESIGN Stool specimens were collected from children under five years of age with diarrhea, and controls without diarrhea, between July 2014 and April 2015. NoV-positive samples, detected previously by Realtime PCR, were analysed using conventional RT-PCR targeting the partial capsid and polymerase genes. Nucleotide sequencing methods were performed to genotype the strains. RESULTS The sequence analyses demonstrated multiple NoV genotypes including GI.4 (13.8%), GI.5 (6.9%), GII.14 (6.9%), GII.4 (31%), GII.6 (3.4%), GII.P15 (3.4%), GII.P21 (3.4%) and GII.Pe (31%). The most prevalent NoV genotypes were GII.4 Sydney 2012 variants (n=7) among the capsid genotypes, GII.Pe (n=9) among the polymerase genotypes and GII.Pe/GII.4 Sydney 2012 (n=8) putative recombinants among the RdRp/Capsid genotypes. Two unassigned GII.4 variants were found. CONCLUSIONS The findings highlighted NoV genetic diversity and revealed continuous pandemic spread and predominance of GII.Pe/GII.4 Sydney 2012, indicative of increased NoV activity. An unusual RdRp genotype GII.P15 and two unassigned GII.4 variants were also identified from rural settings of the Vhembe district/South Africa. NoV surveillance is warranted to help to inform investigations into NoV evolution and disease burden, and to support on-going vaccine development programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Pierre Kabue
- Department of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa.
| | - Emma Meader
- School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Paul R Hunter
- School of Medicine, Health Policy and Practice, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK; Department of Environmental Health, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Natasha Potgieter
- Department of Microbiology, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa; Dean, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
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Molecular Epidemiology and Genetic Diversity of Norovirus in Young Children in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. J Trop Med 2016; 2016:2707121. [PMID: 28115947 PMCID: PMC5223043 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2707121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the genetic diversity of noroviruses identified from a previous surveillance study conducted at the National Pediatric Hospital in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, from 2004 to 2006. In the previous study, 926 stool samples were collected from children aged 3–60 months with acute diarrhea (cases) and without diarrhea (controls) with reported 6.7% of cases and 3.2% of controls being positive for norovirus. The initial norovirus diagnostic assay was performed with real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (real-time RT PCR) which also distinguished between genogroups I and II (GI and GII). Norovirus infection was most commonly detected in children aged 12–23 months in both cases and controls. Norovirus Genotyping Tool and phylogenetic analysis of partial sequences of the 3′ end of the RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase (RdRp) and the capsid domain region were employed to assign genotypes of the norovirus strains. GII.4 was the most predominant capsid genotype detected at 39.5% followed by GII.6 at 14.9%. The GII.4 Hunter 2004 variant was the predominant strain detected. Six RdRP/capsid recombinants including GII.P7/GII.6, GII.P7/GII.14, GII.P7/GII.20, GII.P12/GII.13, GII.P17/GII.16, and GII.P21/GII.3 were also identified. This study of norovirus infection in young children in Cambodia suggests genetic diversity of norovirus as reported worldwide.
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Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Enteric Viruses in Children with Diarrhea in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153652. [PMID: 27092779 PMCID: PMC4836733 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteric viruses are a major cause of diarrhea in children, especially those under five years old. Identifying the viral agents is critical to the development of effective preventive measures. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and genetic diversity of common enteric viruses in children under five years old in Burkina Faso. Stool samples from children with (n = 263) and without (n = 50) diarrhea disorders were collected in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso from November 2011 to September 2012. Rotavirus, norovirus, sapovirus, astrovirus, adenovirus and Aichivirus A were detected using real-time or end-point (RT-)PCR. Rotavirus strains were G and P genotyped by multiplex RT-PCR and other viral strains were characterized by sequencing of viral subgenomic segements. At least one viral agent was detected in 85.6% and 72% of the symptomatic and asymptomatic patients, respectively. Rotavirus (63.5%), adenovirus (31.2%) and genogroup II norovirus (18.2%) were the most prevalent viruses in symptomatic patients, but only rotavirus and genogroup II norovirus were significantly associated with diarrhea (OR: 7.9, 95%CI: 3.7-17; OR: 3.5, 95%CI: 1-11.7, respectively). Sapovirus (10.3%), astrovirus (4.9%), genogroup I norovirus (2.7%) and Aichivirus A (0.8%) were less prevalent. The predominant genotype of rotavirus was G9P[8] (36.5%), and the predominant norovirus strain was GII.4 variant 2012 (71.4%). Among sapovirus, the genogroup II (87.5%) predominated. Astrovirus type 1 (41.7%) was the most frequent astrovirus identified. Aichivirus A belonged to the three genotypes (A, B and C). Enteric adenoviruses type 40 and 41 were identified in 10.2% and 5.1% respectively. Several cases of co-infections were detected. The results highlight the high prevalence and the high diversity of enteric viruses in Burkinabe children.
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Development of enhanced primer sets for detection of norovirus. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:103052. [PMID: 25695041 PMCID: PMC4324898 DOI: 10.1155/2015/103052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus (NV) is a major viral pathogen that causes nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis and outbreaks of food-borne disease. The genotype of NV most frequently responsible for NV outbreaks is GII.4, which accounts for 60–80% of cases. Moreover, original and new NV variant types have been continuously emerging, and their emergence is related to the recent global increase in NV infection. In this study, we developed advanced primer sets (NKI-F/R/F2, NKII-F/R/R2) for the detection of NV, including the variant types. The new primer sets were compared with conventional primer sets (GI-F1/R1/F2, SRI-1/2/3, GII-F1/R1/F2, and SRII-1/2/3) to evaluate their efficiency when using clinical and environmental samples. Using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and seminested PCR, NV GI and GII were detected in 91.7% (NKI-F/R/F2), 89.3% (NKII-F/R/R2), 54.2% (GI-F1/R1/F2), 52.5% (GII-F1/R1/F2), 25.0% (SRI-1/2/3), and 32.2% (SRII-1/2/3) of clinical and environmental specimens. Therefore, our primer sets perform better than conventional primer sets in the detection of emerged types of NV and could be used in the future for epidemiological diagnosis of infection with the virus.
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Ji L, Wu X, Yao W, Chen L, Xu D, Shen Y, Shen J, Han J. Rapid emergence of novel GII.4 sub-lineages noroviruses associated with outbreaks in Huzhou, China, 2008-2012. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82627. [PMID: 24324813 PMCID: PMC3853588 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection caused by noroviruses (NoVs) is one of the most important causes of acute gastroenteritis in humans worldwide. To gain insight into the epidemiology of and genetic variation in NoV strains, stool samples collected from 18 outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis in Huzhou, China, between January 2008 and December 2012 were analyzed. Samples were tested for NoVs by real-time RT-PCR. Partial sequences of the RNA- dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and capsid gene of the positive samples were amplified by RT-PCR, and the PCR products were sequenced and used for phylogenetic analysis. NoVs were found to be responsible of 88.8% of all nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in Huzhou over the last 5 years. Genogroup II outbreaks largely predominated and represented 93% of all outbreaks. A variety of genotypes were found among genogroups I and II, including GI.4, GI.8, GII.4, and GII.b. Moreover, phylogenetic analyses identified two recombinant genotypes (polymerase/capsid): GI.2/GI.6 and GII.e/GII.4 2012 Sydney. GII.4 was predominant and involved in 8/10 typed outbreaks. During the study period, GII.4 NoV variants 2006b, New Orleans 2009, and Sydney 2012 were identified. This is the first report of the detection of GII.4 New Orleans 2009 variant, GII.e/GII.4 Sydney 2012 recombinant in outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Ji
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xiaofang Wu
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Wenting Yao
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Liping Chen
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Deshun Xu
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yuehua Shen
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jiayu Shen
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jiankang Han
- Huzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Huzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
- * E-mail:
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Ruether IGA, Tsakogiannis D, Kyriakopoulou Z, Dimitriou TG, Papamichail C, Gartzonika C, Leveidiotou-Stefanou S, Markoulatos P. Circulation of intergenotype recombinant noroviruses GII.9/GII.6 from 2006 to 2011 in central Greece. Virus Genes 2013; 48:23-31. [PMID: 24142407 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-013-0994-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) are members of the Caliciviridae family and are recognized as a worldwide cause of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Based on the genetic analysis of the RdRp and capsid regions, human NoVs are divided into three genogroups (Gs), GI, GII, and GIV, which further segregate into distinct lineages called genotypes. In this study, in an attempt to discern the circulation of an intergenotypic recombinant GII.9/GII.6, which was previously reported by our group in central Greece, we investigated NoVs in raw sewages from 2006 to 2011 and compared the results with the viruses detected from clinical samples in the same area and in the same time period. Two specific primer pairs for NoVs were designed which amplified in a single PCR fragment from polymerase to capsid gene covering the widespread recombination point in ORF1/ORF2 junction. Based on the genetic analysis, recombinant NoV strains GII.9/GII.6 were identified. Fourteen out of 15 environmental and eight out of ten clinical samples that were used in the present study were positive, with both primer pairs, confirming that the intergenotypic recombinant GII.9/GII.6 was circulating in the population of central Greece from 2006 to 2011. The crossover point was identified to be within the overlapping region of ORF1/ORF2 (GII.9/GII.6, respectively) and was determined by Simplot at nucleotide position 5,032 bp.
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Affiliation(s)
- I G A Ruether
- Microbiology-Virology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
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Bruggink L, Marshall J. Altered patterns of norovirus GII.b recombinant forms in gastroenteritis outbreaks in victoria, Australia, 2002-2005 compared to 2006-2011. J Med Virol 2013; 85:1433-43. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- L.D. Bruggink
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory; North Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - J.A. Marshall
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory; North Melbourne Victoria Australia
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Chitambar S, Gopalkrishna V, Chhabra P, Patil P, Verma H, Lahon A, Arora R, Tatte V, Ranshing S, Dhale G, Kolhapure R, Tikute S, Kulkarni J, Bhardwaj R, Akarte S, Pawar S. Diversity in the enteric viruses detected in outbreaks of gastroenteritis from Mumbai, Western India. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2012; 9:895-915. [PMID: 22690171 PMCID: PMC3367285 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph9030895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Revised: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Faecal specimens collected from two outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis that occurred in southern Mumbai, India in March and October, 2006 were tested for seven different enteric viruses. Among the 218 specimens tested, 95 (43.6%) were positive, 73 (76.8%) for a single virus and 22 (23.2%) for multiple viruses. Single viral infections in both, March and October showed predominance of enterovirus (EV, 33.3% and 40%) and rotavirus A (RVA, 33.3% and 25%). The other viruses detected in these months were norovirus (NoV, 12.1% and 10%), rotavirus B (RVB, 12.1% and 10%), enteric adenovirus (AdV, 6.1% and 7.5%), Aichivirus (AiV, 3% and 7.5%) and human astrovirus (HAstV, 3% and 0%). Mixed viral infections were largely represented by two viruses (84.6% and 88.9%), a small proportion showed presence of three (7.7% and 11%) and four (7.7% and 0%) viruses in the two outbreaks. Genotyping of the viruses revealed predominance of RVA G2P[4], RVB G2 (Indian Bangladeshi lineage), NoV GII.4, AdV-40, HAstV-8 and AiV B types. VP1/2A junction region based genotyping showed presence of 11 different serotypes of EVs. Although no virus was detected in the tested water samples, examination of both water and sewage pipelines in gastroenteritis affected localities indicated leakages and possibility of contamination of drinking water with sewage water. Coexistence of multiple enteric viruses during the two outbreaks of gastroenteritis emphasizes the need to expand such investigations to other parts of India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shobha Chitambar
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Varanasi Gopalkrishna
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Preeti Chhabra
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Pooja Patil
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Harsha Verma
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Anismrita Lahon
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Ritu Arora
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Vaishali Tatte
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Sujata Ranshing
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Ganesh Dhale
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Rajendra Kolhapure
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Sanjay Tikute
- Enteric Viruses Group, National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Pune 411001, India; (V.G.); (P.C.); (P.P.); (H.V.); (R.A.); (A.L.); (V.T.); (S.R.); (G.D.); (R.K.); (S.T.)
| | - Jagannath Kulkarni
- Department of Pathology, Gokuldas Tejpal Hospital, Lokmanya Tilak Marg, Fort, Mumbai 400001, India;
| | - Renu Bhardwaj
- Department of Microbiology, Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital, Byculla, Mumbai 400008, India;
| | - Sulbha Akarte
- Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital, Byculla, Mumbai 400008, India; (S.A.); (S.P.)
| | - Sashikant Pawar
- Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital, Byculla, Mumbai 400008, India; (S.A.); (S.P.)
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15
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Dai YC, Hu GF, Zhang XF, Song CL, Xiang WL, Wu XB, Wang LY, Jiang X, Nie J. Molecular epidemiology of norovirus gastroenteritis in children in Jiangmen, China, 2005-2007. Arch Virol 2011; 156:1641-6. [PMID: 21562879 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-1010-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (NoVs) are an important cause of epidemic acute gastroenteritis. Their role in sporadic cases, however, is less clear. In this study, we performed a two-year surveillance (September 2005 to August 2007) of NoV gastroenteritis in outpatient clinics in a southern city of China, Jiangmen City. NoVs were detected in 115 patients (115/881, 13.1%) with 30 (26.1%) co-infections with rotaviruses. Sequence analysis showed that all 115 NoVs belonged to genogroup II, with GII.4 being the most predominant (87.8%). NoV-associated infection can be seen year-around, with autumn and winter peaks. This study provides basic information on sporadic cases of major NoV gastroenteritis in children in different seasons, which is valuable for future disease control and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-chun Dai
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Tonghe Road, Guangzhou 510515, Guang Dong, People's Republic of China
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16
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Sdiri-Loulizi K, Hassine M, Aouni Z, Gharbi-Khelifi H, Chouchane S, Sakly N, Neji-Guédiche M, Pothier P, Aouni M, Ambert-Balay K. Detection and molecular characterization of enteric viruses in environmental samples in Monastir, Tunisia between January 2003 and April 2007. J Appl Microbiol 2011; 109:1093-104. [PMID: 20553345 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04772.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS A prospective study was performed to characterize the main human enteric viruses able to persist in sewage samples and in shellfish tissues, and to establish the correlation between environmental strains and viral infantile diarrhoea observed in the same area during the same period. METHODS AND RESULTS A total of 250 sewage (raw and treated) and 60 shellfish samples were collected between January 2003 and April 2007 in Monastir region, Tunisia. Group A rotavirus (RVA) was detected in 80 (32%) sewage samples, norovirus (NoV) in 11 (4·4%) and enteric adenovirus (AdV) in 1 (0·4%). Among 60 shellfish samples collected near sewage effluents, one was contaminated by NoV (1·6%). CONCLUSION Our data represent the first documentation in Tunisia, combining gastroenteritis viruses circulating in the environment and in clinical isolates. We observed a correlation between environmental strains and those found in children suffering from gastroenteritis during the same period study. This suggests the existence of a relationship between water contamination and paediatric diarrhoea. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Our results address the potential health risks associated with transmission of human enteric viruses through water-related environmental routes. The research findings will aid in elucidating the molecular epidemiology and circulation of enteric viruses in Tunisia and in Africa, where data are rare.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sdiri-Loulizi
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biological Agents, Faculty of Pharmacy, Monastir, Tunisia.
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17
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[Survival strategies of human norovirus]. Uirusu 2010; 60:21-32. [PMID: 20848862 DOI: 10.2222/jsv.60.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Human norovirus is a mutatable non-enveloped RNA virus capable of causing acute gastroenteritis in humans. Thus far, no experimental systems can propagate this virus in large amounts. Recent progresses in viral genomics and bioinformatics have led to a better understanding of molecular evolution of this virus in human populations. In addition, progresses in studies of the related noroviruses, those are replicable in laboratory systems, have led to a rapid accumulation of information on structural biology of norovirus. Furthermore, progresses in public health and water environment researches have led to a better understanding of viral ecology. In this review, I will first summarize fundamental characteristics of norovirus and its molecules. Then, I will summarize structure and molecular evolution of norovirus GII/4 subtype, which is now responsible for majorities of norovirus outbreaks in the world. Finally I will discuss survival strategies of human norovirus in nature by integrating the information.
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18
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Mathijs E, Muylkens B, Mauroy A, Ziant D, Delwiche T, Thiry E. Experimental evidence of recombination in murine noroviruses. J Gen Virol 2010; 91:2723-33. [PMID: 20702654 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.024109-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on sequencing data, norovirus (NoV) recombinants have been described, but no experimental evidence of recombination in NoVs has been documented. Using the murine norovirus (MNV) model, we investigated the occurrence of genetic recombination between two co-infecting wild-type MNV isolates in RAW cells. The design of a PCR-based genotyping tool allowed accurate discrimination between the parental genomes and the detection of a viable recombinant MNV (Rec MNV) in the progeny viruses. Genetic analysis of Rec MNV identified a homologous-recombination event located at the ORF1-ORF2 overlap. Rec MNV exhibited distinct growth curves and produced smaller plaques than the wild-type MNV in RAW cells. Here, we demonstrate experimentally that MNV undergoes homologous recombination at the previously described recombination hot spot for NoVs, suggesting that the MNV model might be suitable for in vitro studies of NoV recombination. Moreover, the results show that exchange of genetic material between NoVs can generate viruses with distinct biological properties from the parental viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Mathijs
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Virology and Viral Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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Divergent evolution of norovirus GII/4 by genome recombination from May 2006 to February 2009 in Japan. J Virol 2010; 84:8085-97. [PMID: 20534859 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02125-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Norovirus GII/4 is a leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in humans. We examined here how the GII/4 virus evolves to generate and sustain new epidemics in humans, using 199 near-full-length GII/4 genome sequences and 11 genome segment clones from human stool specimens collected at 19 sites in Japan between May 2006 and February 2009. Phylogenetic studies demonstrated outbreaks of 7 monophyletic GII/4 subtypes, among which a single subtype, termed 2006b, had continually predominated. Phylogenetic-tree, bootscanning-plot, and informative-site analyses revealed that 4 of the 7 GII/4 subtypes were mosaics of recently prevalent GII/4 subtypes and 1 was made up of the GII/4 and GII/12 genotypes. Notably, single putative recombination breakpoints with the highest statistical significance were constantly located around the border of open reading frame 1 (ORF1) and ORF2 (P <or= 0.000001), suggesting outgrowth of specific recombinant viruses in the outbreaks. The GII/4 subtypes had many unique amino acids at the time of their outbreaks, especially in the N-term, 3A-like, and capsid proteins. Unique amino acids in the capsids were preferentially positioned on the outer surface loops of the protruding P2 domain and more abundant in the dominant subtypes. These findings suggest that intersubtype genome recombination at the ORF1/2 boundary region is a common mechanism that realizes independent and concurrent changes on the virion surface and in viral replication proteins for the persistence of norovirus GII/4 in human populations.
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20
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Abente EJ, Sosnovtsev SV, Bok K, Green KY. Visualization of feline calicivirus replication in real-time with recombinant viruses engineered to express fluorescent reporter proteins. Virology 2010; 400:18-31. [PMID: 20137802 PMCID: PMC2855553 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 12/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Caliciviruses are non-enveloped, icosahedral viruses with a single-stranded, positive sense RNA genome. Transposon-mediated insertional mutagenesis was used to insert a transprimer sequence into random sites of an infectious full-length cDNA clone of the feline calicivirus (FCV) genome. A site in the LC gene (encoding the capsid leader protein) of the FCV genome was identified that could tolerate foreign insertions, and two viable recombinant FCV variants expressing LC fused either to AcGFP, or DsRedFP were recovered. The effects of the insertions on LC processing, RNA replication, and stability of the viral genome were analyzed, and the progression of a calicivirus single infection and co-infection were captured by real-time imaging fluorescent microscopy. The ability to engineer viable recombinant caliciviruses expressing foreign markers enables new approaches to investigate virus and host cell interactions, as well as studies of viral recombination, one of the driving forces of calicivirus evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenio J. Abente
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
| | | | - Karin Bok
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Kim Y. Green
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
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Frequent detection of noroviruses and sapoviruses in swine and high genetic diversity of porcine sapovirus in Japan during Fiscal Year 2008. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48:1215-22. [PMID: 20164276 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02130-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A molecular biological survey on porcine norovirus (NoV) and sapovirus (SaV) was conducted in Toyama Prefecture, Japan, during fiscal year 2008. Both NoV and SaV were detected from swine fecal samples throughout the surveillance period, indicating that these viruses were circulating in this region. NoV strains detected in this study belonged to three genotypes that are known as typical swine NoVs. Although human NoVs were occasionally detected, it was unclear whether they replicated in pigs. As for SaV, genogroup VII (GVII) and other divergent genogroups were identified in addition to the dominant genogroup, GIII, which is the prototypic porcine SaV. In addition, 3 strains genetically related to human SaV were detected. Two of these 3 strains were closely related to human SaV GV. Our study showed that genetic diversification of porcine SaV is currently progressing in the swine population.
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Nishimura N, Nakayama H, Yoshizumi S, Miyoshi M, Tonoike H, Shirasaki Y, Kojima K, Ishida S. Detection of noroviruses in fecal specimens by direct RT-PCR without RNA purification. J Virol Methods 2010; 163:282-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Revised: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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23
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Chung JY, Han TH, Park SH, Kim SW, Hwang ES. Detection of GII-4/2006b variant and recombinant noroviruses in children with acute gastroenteritis, South Korea. J Med Virol 2010; 82:146-52. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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24
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Barreira DMPG, Ferreira MSR, Fumian TM, Checon R, de Sadovsky ADI, Leite JPG, Miagostovich MP, Spano LC. Viral load and genotypes of noroviruses in symptomatic and asymptomatic children in Southeastern Brazil. J Clin Virol 2009; 47:60-4. [PMID: 20004146 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2009.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2009] [Revised: 10/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Noroviruses (NoVs) are a major etiological agent of sporadic acute gastroenteritis worldwide. OBJECTIVES To detect, quantify and characterize genogroups and genotypes of NoVs in children with and without gastrointestinal symptoms. STUDY DESIGN NoVs were investigated by RT-PCR in a total of 319 fecal specimens from children up to three years old with (n=229) and without (n=90) acute diarrhea, between February 2003 and June 2004 in the emergency room in Vitória, Southeastern Brazil. NoVs were quantified by real-time PCR and genotyped. RESULTS NoVs were detected in 17% (40/229) and 13% (12/90) of symptomatic and asymptomatic children, respectively. Six NoV-rotavirus A mixed infections were observed. Fifty-one strains were characterized as NoV GII and one as GI. Twenty strains were characterized as GII/4 (9/13), GII/3 (1/13), GII/6 (2/13) and GII/14 (1/13) in symptomatic and GII/3 (6/7) and GII/8 (1/7) in asymptomatic children. The median RNA viral loads were 8.39 and 7.15log(10)copies/g of fecal specimens for symptomatic and asymptomatic children, respectively (p=0.011). NoV load was lower when it was present in a mixed infection with rotavirus A (p=0.0005). CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates a diversity of NoV strains circulating in this geographic area, and reports GII/8 and GII/14 in the American Continent for the first time. In addition, it confirms GII/4 as the most prevalent genotype in symptomatic children and identified GII/3 in an important frequency, especially in asymptomatic children. Furthermore, preliminary results show that symptomatic patients present a viral load that is significantly greater than asymptomatic children (p=0.011).
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Maria Pires Gonçalves Barreira
- Núcleo de Doenças Infecciosas, Health Science Center, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Av Marechal Campos 1468, 29043-900 Maruipe, Vitória, ES, Brazil
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25
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Fukuda S, Takao S, Shigemoto N, Tanizawa Y, Seno M. Transition of genotypes associated with norovirus gastroenteritis outbreaks in a limited area of Japan, Hiroshima Prefecture, during eight epidemic seasons. Arch Virol 2009; 155:111-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-009-0528-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2009] [Accepted: 09/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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26
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Bruggink LD, Marshall JA. Molecular and epidemiological features of GIIb norovirus outbreaks in Victoria, Australia, 2002-2005. J Med Virol 2009; 81:1652-60. [PMID: 19626605 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The epidemiology of GIIb norovirus outbreaks and the characteristics of GIIb open reading frame (ORF) 2 recombinant forms are poorly understood and this study examined these questions using norovirus-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks in Victoria, Australia, during 2002-2005. Twenty-one GIIb outbreaks were detected and were the second most common ORF 1 norovirus outbreak genotype (5%) after GII.4 (90%). Both GIIb and GII.4 outbreaks peaked in warmer months of the year but their periodicity was different. ORF 2 sequencing analysis was carried out in the two regions previously designated C and D. RT-PCR region D primers were less sensitive than region C primers. No evidence of recombination between regions C and D was found. ORF 2 genotypes for the 21 GIIb outbreaks were: GII.1 (10 outbreaks), GII.3 (10 outbreaks) and, apparently for the first time, GII.13 (1 outbreak). GIIb outbreaks could occur in a broad range of settings and there was no correlation between ORF 2 genotype and setting except that all 5 outbreaks involving mainly young children were associated with GIIb/GII.3.
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Affiliation(s)
- L D Bruggink
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, North Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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27
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Li HY, Jin M, Zhang Q, Liu N, Cui SX, Fang ZY, Duan ZJ. Molecular characterization of GIIb recombinants and a novel genotype of Norovirus detected in China. J Infect 2009; 59:215-8. [PMID: 19665235 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2009.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2009] [Revised: 07/10/2009] [Accepted: 07/13/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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