1
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Liang Z, Tong J, Sun Z, Liu S, Wu J, Wu X, Li T, Yu Y, Zhang L, Zhao C, Lu Q, Nie J, Huang W, Wang Y. Rational prediction of immunogenicity clustering through cross-reactivity analysis of thirteen SARS-CoV-2 variants. J Med Virol 2024; 96:e29314. [PMID: 38163276 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.29314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infections in vaccinated individuals underscore the threat posed by continuous mutating variants, such as Omicron, to vaccine-induced immunity. This necessitates the search for broad-spectrum immunogens capable of countering infections from such variants. This study evaluates the immunogenicity relationship among SARS-CoV-2 variants, from D614G to XBB, through Guinea pig vaccination, covering D614G, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, BA.1, BA.2, BA.2.75, BA.2.75.2, BA.5, BF.7, BQ.1.1, and XBB, employing three immunization strategies: three-dose monovalent immunogens, three-dose bivalent immunogens, and a two-dose vaccination with D614G followed by a booster immunization with a variant strain immunogen. Three distinct immunogenicity clusters were identified: D614G, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta as cluster 1, BA.1, BA.2, and BA.2.75 as cluster 2, BA.2.75.2, BA.5, BF.7, BQ.1.1, and XBB as cluster 3. Broad-spectrum protection could be achieved through a combined immunization strategy using bivalent immunogens or D614G and XBB, or two initial D614G vaccinations followed by two XBB boosters. A comparison of neutralizing antibody levels induced by XBB boosting and equivalent dosing of D614G and XBB revealed that the XBB booster produced higher antibody levels. The study suggests that vaccine antigen selection should focus on the antigenic alterations among variants, eliminating the need for updating vaccine components for each variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziteng Liang
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Jincheng Tong
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Ziqi Sun
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Shuo Liu
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Changping Laboratory, Beijing, China
| | - Jiajing Wu
- Department of R&D Beijing Yunling Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
| | - Xi Wu
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Li
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | | | - Li Zhang
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Chenyan Zhao
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Qiong Lu
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Jianhui Nie
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Weijin Huang
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
| | - Youchun Wang
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, Institute for Biological Product Control, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, NHC Key Laboratory of Research on Quality and Standardization of Biotech Products and NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Biological Products, Beijing, China
- Changping Laboratory, Beijing, China
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medicine Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, Yunnan, China
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2
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Abreu C, Ortega C, Olivero-Deibe N, Carrión F, Gaete-Argel A, Valiente-Echeverría F, Soto-Rifo R, Milan Bonotto R, Marcello A, Pantano S. Customizably designed multibodies neutralize SARS-CoV-2 in a variant-insensitive manner. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1226880. [PMID: 37638023 PMCID: PMC10447908 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1226880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic evolves constantly, requiring adaptable solutions to combat emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. To address this, we created a pentameric scaffold based on a mammalian protein, which can be customized with up to 10 protein binding modules. This molecular scaffold spans roughly 20 nm and can simultaneously neutralize SARS-CoV-2 Spike proteins from one or multiple viral particles. Using only two different modules targeting the Spike's RBD domain, this construct outcompetes human antibodies from vaccinated individuals' serum and blocks in vitro cell attachment and pseudotyped virus entry. Additionally, the multibodies inhibit viral replication at low picomolar concentrations, regardless of the variant. This customizable multibody can be easily produced in procaryote systems, providing a new avenue for therapeutic development and detection devices, and contributing to preparedness against rapidly evolving pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Aracelly Gaete-Argel
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Virology, Virology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fernando Valiente-Echeverría
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Virology, Virology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Ricardo Soto-Rifo
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Virology, Virology Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rafaela Milan Bonotto
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, The International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Trieste, Italy
| | - Alessandro Marcello
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, The International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB), Trieste, Italy
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3
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He J, Mei Q, Peng Y, Xie J, Li W, Ding C, Jiang C, Chen Q, Wang J, Zhang Y, Ni S, Yu J, Liu T, Yang W, Gong L, Zhang X, Yuan Y, Zhang Z, He L, He H, Sun Y, Wu J, Liu Z, Gao Y. Are the original SARS-CoV-2 novel mutants from in vitro culture able to escape the immune response? J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28931. [PMID: 37448226 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring variations in the virus genome to understand the SARS-CoV-2 evolution and spread of the virus is extremely important. Seven early SARS-CoV-2 isolates in China were cultured in vitro and were analyzed for their viral infectivity through viral growth assay, tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50 ) assay, spike protein quantification, and next generation sequencing analysis, and the resultant mutations in spike protein were used to generate the corresponding pseudoviruses for analysis of immune escape from vaccination and postinfection immunity. The results revealed that in vitro cultured SARS-CoV-2 virus had much higher mutation frequency (up to ~20 times) than that in infected patients, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 diversify under favorable conditions. Monitoring viral mutations is not only helpful for better understanding of virus evolution and virulence change, but also the key to prevent virus transmission and disease progression. Compared with the D614G reference strain, a pseudovirus strain of SARS-CoV-2 was constructed with a high mutation rate site on the spike protein. We found some novel spike mutations during in vitro culture, such as E868Q, conferred further immune escape ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun He
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qingmin Mei
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yousong Peng
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Virology, Bioinformatics Center, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, China
| | - Jiajia Xie
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Weiwei Li
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Chengchao Ding
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Chengcheng Jiang
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Qingqing Chen
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Jing Wang
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yuqing Zhang
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Shuangshuang Ni
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Junling Yu
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Tao Liu
- Annoroad Gene Technology (Beijing) Co., Beijing, China
| | - Weifei Yang
- Annoroad Gene Technology (Beijing) Co., Beijing, China
| | - Lei Gong
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhang
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhuhui Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Lan He
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Hongliang He
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yong Sun
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Jiabing Wu
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhirong Liu
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Public Health Research Institute of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yong Gao
- United Laboratory of The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC and Anhui Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hefei, China
- Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China
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4
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Bivalent SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines increase breadth of neutralization and protect against the BA.5 Omicron variant in mice. Nat Med 2023; 29:247-257. [PMID: 36265510 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-022-02092-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants in the Omicron lineage has resulted in diminished Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine efficacy and persistent transmission. In this study, we evaluated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of two, recently authorized, bivalent COVID-19 vaccines that contain two mRNAs encoding Wuhan-1 and either BA.1 (mRNA-1273.214) or BA.4/5 (mRNA-1273.222) spike proteins. As a primary two-dose immunization series in mice, both bivalent vaccines induced greater neutralizing antibody responses against Omicron variants than the parental, monovalent mRNA-1273 vaccine. When administered to mice as a booster at 7 months after the primary vaccination series with mRNA-1273, the bivalent vaccines induced broadly neutralizing antibody responses. Whereas most anti-Omicron receptor binding domain antibodies in serum induced by mRNA-1273, mRNA-1273.214 and mRNA-1273.222 boosters cross-reacted with the antecedent Wuhan-1 spike antigen, the mRNA-1273.214 and mRNA-1273.222 bivalent vaccine boosters also induced unique BA.1-specific and BA.4/5-specific responses, respectively. Although boosting with parental or bivalent mRNA vaccines substantially improved protection against BA.5 compared to mice receiving two vaccine doses, the levels of infection, inflammation and pathology in the lung were lowest in animals administered the bivalent mRNA vaccines. Thus, boosting with bivalent Omicron-based mRNA-1273.214 or mRNA-1273.222 vaccines enhances immunogenicity and confers protection in mice against a currently circulating SARS-CoV-2 strain.
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5
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Focosi D, Maggi F. Do We Really Need Omicron Spike-Based Updated COVID-19 Vaccines? Evidence and Pipeline. Viruses 2022; 14:2488. [PMID: 36366586 PMCID: PMC9692555 DOI: 10.3390/v14112488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The wild-type SARS-CoV-2 Spike-based vaccines authorized so far have reduced COVID-19 severity, but periodic boosts are required to counteract the decline in immunity. An accelerated rate of immune escape to vaccine-elicited immunity has been associated with Spike protein antigenic shifts, as seen in the Omicron variant of concern and its sublineages, demanding the development of Omicron Spike-based vaccines. Herein, we review the evidence in animal models and topline results from ongoing clinical trials with such updated vaccines, discussing the pros and cons for their deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Focosi
- North-Western Tuscany Blood Bank, Pisa University Hospital, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Maggi
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases “L. Spallanzani”, 00161 Rome, Italy
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6
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Scheaffer SM, Lee D, Whitener B, Ying B, Wu K, Jani H, Martin P, Amato NJ, Avena LE, Berrueta DM, Schmidt SD, O’Dell S, Nasir A, Chuang GY, Stewart-Jones G, Koup RA, Doria-Rose NA, Carfi A, Elbashir SM, Thackray LB, Edwards DK, Diamond MS. Bivalent SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines increase breadth of neutralization and protect against the BA.5 Omicron variant. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2022:2022.09.12.507614. [PMID: 36263060 PMCID: PMC9580377 DOI: 10.1101/2022.09.12.507614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants in the Omicron lineage with large numbers of substitutions in the spike protein that can evade antibody neutralization has resulted in diminished vaccine efficacy and persistent transmission. One strategy to broaden vaccine-induced immunity is to administer bivalent vaccines that encode for spike proteins from both historical and newly-emerged variant strains. Here, we evaluated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of two bivalent vaccines that recently were authorized for use in Europe and the United States and contain two mRNAs encoding Wuhan-1 and either BA.1 (mRNA-1273.214) or BA.4/5 (mRNA-1273.222) spike proteins. As a primary immunization series in BALB/c mice, both bivalent vaccines induced broader neutralizing antibody responses than the constituent monovalent vaccines (mRNA-1273 [Wuhan-1], mRNA-1273.529 [BA.1], and mRNA-1273-045 [BA.4/5]). When administered to K18-hACE2 transgenic mice as a booster at 7 months after the primary vaccination series with mRNA-1273, the bivalent vaccines induced greater breadth and magnitude of neutralizing antibodies compared to an mRNA-1273 booster. Moreover, the response in bivalent vaccine-boosted mice was associated with increased protection against BA.5 infection and inflammation in the lung. Thus, boosting with bivalent Omicron-based mRNA-1273.214 or mRNA-1273.222 vaccines enhances immunogenicity and protection against currently circulating SARS-CoV-2 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M. Scheaffer
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | - Bradley Whitener
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Baoling Ying
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kai Wu
- Moderna, Inc., Cambridge MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Stephen D. Schmidt
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sijy O’Dell
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | | | - Richard A. Koup
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nicole A. Doria-Rose
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Larissa B. Thackray
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | | | - Michael S. Diamond
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- The Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine. St. Louis, MO, USA
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity to Microbial Pathogens, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, USA
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