1
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Li Z, Li Y, Xu X, Gu J, Chen H, Gui Y. Exosomes rich in Wnt5 improved circadian rhythm dysfunction via enhanced PPARγ activity in the 6-hydroxydopamine model of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 2023; 802:137139. [PMID: 36813077 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
Sleep disorder is one of the most common non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD) and even appear as early symptoms. Here we investigated the therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-EXOs) on sleep disorder in PD rats. 6-hydroxydopa (6-OHDA) was used to establish the PD rat model. BMSCquiescent-EXO and BMSCinduced-EXO groups were given intravenous injection 100 µg/g per day for 4 weeks, while control groups were given intravenous injection of the same volume of normal saline. The total sleep time, slow-wave sleep time and fast-wave sleep time in the BMSCquiescent-EXO and BMSCinduced-EXO groups were significantly prolonged (P < 0.05) compared with PD group, while the awakening time was significantly shortened (P < 0.05). In addition, increased levels of dopamine (P < 0.05) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (P < 0.05) levels were observed in the striatum of BMSCquiescent-EXO and BMSCinduced-EXO groups. Further, qPCR and western blot revealed that the mRNA levels of CLOCK, BMAL1 and PER2 in suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) were notably increased in BMSCquiescent-EXO and BMSCinduced-EXO groups compared to those from PD rats. More importantly, peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) activities were significantly enhanced after treatment with BMSCquiescent-EXO and BMSCinduced-EXO. JC-1 fluorescence staining showed that mitochondrial membrane potential imbalance was repaired after inoculation of BMSCinduced-EXO. In summary, MSC-EXOs showed the improvement of sleep disorder in PD rats through recovering circadian rhythm associated gene expression. The potential mechanisms may be related with increased PPARγ activities and rescued mitochondrial membrane potential imbalance in Parkinson striatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongshan Li
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200080, China
| | - Yongang Li
- Department of Neurology, First People' Hospital of Wenling, Wenling, Zhejiang 317599, China
| | - Xiaomin Xu
- Department of Neurology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310016, China
| | - Jiachen Gu
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200080, China
| | - Huimin Chen
- Department of Neurology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310016, China
| | - Yaxing Gui
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200080, China.
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Fieblinger T, Li C, Espa E, Cenci MA. Non-Apoptotic Caspase-3 Activation Mediates Early Synaptic Dysfunction of Indirect Pathway Neurons in the Parkinsonian Striatum. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23105470. [PMID: 35628278 PMCID: PMC9141690 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-apoptotic caspase-3 activation is critically involved in dendritic spine loss and synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer’s disease. It is, however, not known whether caspase-3 plays similar roles in other pathologies. Using a mouse model of clinically manifest Parkinson’s disease, we provide the first evidence that caspase-3 is transiently activated in the striatum shortly after the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic projections. This caspase-3 activation concurs with a rapid loss of dendritic spines and deficits in synaptic long-term depression (LTD) in striatal projection neurons forming the indirect pathway. Interestingly, systemic treatment with a caspase inhibitor prevents both the spine pruning and the deficit of indirect pathway LTD without interfering with the ongoing dopaminergic degeneration. Taken together, our data identify transient and non-apoptotic caspase activation as a critical event in the early plastic changes of indirect pathway neurons following dopamine denervation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Fieblinger
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
- University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institute for Synaptic Physiology, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
- Correspondence: (T.F.); (M.A.C.)
| | - Chang Li
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
| | - Elena Espa
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
| | - M. Angela Cenci
- Basal Ganglia Pathophysiology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 223 62 Lund, Sweden; (C.L.); (E.E.)
- Correspondence: (T.F.); (M.A.C.)
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3
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Tiwari PC, Chaudhary MJ, Pal R, Kartik S, Nath R. Pharmacological, Biochemical and Immunological Studies on Protective Effect of Mangiferin in 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-Induced Parkinson's Disease in Rats. Ann Neurosci 2022; 28:137-149. [PMID: 35341236 PMCID: PMC8948331 DOI: 10.1177/09727531211051976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder and is marked by
inflammation and death of neurons in the striatum region of the midbrain. It
has been reported that expression of NF-κB increases during Parkinson’s
disease, which promotes oxidative stress, stimulates release of
proinflammatory cytokines, and induces expression of nitric oxide.
Therefore, in this study, we have used mangiferin a specific NF-κB
inhibitor. Mangiferin is a polyphenolic compound traditionally used for its
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Methods: The study utilized male Wistar rats weighing 200–250 g (56 rats;
n = 8/group). On day “0,” stereotaxic surgery of rats
was done to induce 6-hydroxydopamine lesioning in rats. Coordinates for
substantia nigra were anteroposterior-2 mm, mediolateral-5 mm and
dorsoventral-8.2 mm. After 14 days, those rats which show at least 210
contralateral rotations after administration of apomorphine (0.5 mg/kg S.C.)
were selected for the study and were given treatment for 28 days. On day 28
of treatment, rats were subjected to behavioral studies to evaluate the
effect of mangiferin and their brains were taken out after euthanasia to
perform biochemical, molecular and immunological studies. Results: Treatment with mangiferin significantly improves the key parameters of
locomotor activity and oxidative stress and reduces the parameters of
inflammatory stress. Also, the activity of caspases was reduced. Significant
decrease in activity of both cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 was also observed.
Maximum improvement in all parameters was observed in rats treated with
grouping of mangiferin 45 µg/kg and levodopa 10 mg/kg. Treatment with
levodopa alone has no significant effect on biochemical and molecular
parameters though it significantly improves behavioral parameters. Conclusion: Current treatment of Parkinson’s disease does not target progression of
Parkinson’s disease. Results of this study suggest that mangiferin has
protective effect in hemi-Parkinsonian rats. Therefore, the combination
therapy of mangiferin and levodopa can be helpful in management of
Parkinson’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prafulla Chandra Tiwari
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Manju J Chaudhary
- Department of Physiology, Government Medical College, Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rishi Pal
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Shipra Kartik
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rajendra Nath
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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4
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Evaluation of the neuroprotective potential of caffeic acid phenethyl ester in a cellular model of Parkinson's disease. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 883:173342. [PMID: 32634439 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, and oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction play a major role in the pathogenesis of PD. Since conventional therapeutics are not sufficient for the treatment of PD, the development of new agents with anti-oxidant potential is crucial. Caffeic Acid Phenethyl Ester (CAPE), a biologically active flavonoid of propolis, possesses several biological properties such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of CAPE against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced SH-SY5Y cells. The neuroprotective effects were detected by using cell viability, Annexin V, Hoechst staining, total caspase activity, cell cycle, as well as western blotting. Besides, the anti-oxidative activity was measured by the production of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial function was determined by measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm). We found that CAPE significantly increased cell viability and decreased apoptotic cell death (~20%) after 150 μM 6-OHDA exposure following 24 h. 1.25 μM CAPE also prevented 6-OHDA-induced changes in condensed nuclear morphology. Furthermore, treatment with 1.25 μM CAPE increased mitochondrial membrane potential in 6-OHDA-exposed cells. CAPE inhibited 6-OHDA-induced caspase activity (~2 fold) and production of reactive oxygen species. In addition, 150 μM 6-OHDA-induced down-regulation of Bcl-2 and Akt levels and up-regulation of Bax and cleaved caspase-9/caspase-9 levels were partially restored by 1.25 μM CAPE treatment. These results revealed a neuroprotective potential of CAPE against 6-OHDA-induced apoptosis in an in vitro PD model and may be a potential therapeutic candidate for the prevention of neurodegeneration in Parkinson's Disease.
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Cai LJ, Tu L, Li T, Yang XL, Ren YP, Gu R, Zhang Q, Yao H, Qu X, Wang Q, Tian JY. Up-regulation of microRNA-375 ameliorates the damage of dopaminergic neurons, reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in Parkinson's disease by inhibiting SP1. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:672-689. [PMID: 31927536 PMCID: PMC6977707 DOI: 10.18632/aging.102649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Background: This study is conducted to investigate the protective role of elevated microRNA-375 (miR-375) in dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease through down-regulating transcription factor specificity protein 1 (SP1). Results: The successfully modeled rats with Parkinson’s disease showed aggregated neurobehavioral change, increased neuroinflammatory response and oxidative stress, and lowered dopamine content. Parkinson’s disease rats treated with overexpressed miR-375 displayed improved neurobehavioral change, ameliorated neuroinflammatory response and oxidative stress, heightened dopamine content and abated neuronal apoptosis by down-regulating SP1. Up-regulation of SP1 reversed the protective effect of upregulated miR-375 on Parkinson’s disease. Conclusion: Up-regulation of miR-375 ameliorated the damage of dopaminergic neurons, reduced oxidative stress and inflammation in Parkinson’s disease by inhibiting SP1. Methods: Parkinson’s disease rat model was established by targeted injection of 6-hydroxydopamine to damage the substantia nigra striatum. The successfully modeled Parkinson’s disease rats were intracerebroventricularly injected with miR-375 mimics or pcDNA3.1-SP1. The functions of miR-375 and SP1 in neurobehavioral change, neuroinflammatory response, oxidative stress, dopamine content and expression of apoptosis-related proteins in the substantia nigra of Parkinson’s disease rats were evaluated. The target relation of miR-375 and SP1 was confirmed by bioinformatics analysis and dual luciferase reporter gene assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Jun Cai
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Li Tu
- Department of General Medical, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Tian Li
- Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563000, PR. China.,Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Xiu-Lin Yang
- Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Yi-Pin Ren
- Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Ran Gu
- Department of Neurology, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Huan Yao
- Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Xiang Qu
- Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Neurology, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
| | - Jin-Yong Tian
- Department of Emergency, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550004, PR. China
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6
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Downregulation of lncRNA UCA1 ameliorates the damage of dopaminergic neurons, reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in Parkinson's disease through the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Int Immunopharmacol 2019; 75:105734. [PMID: 31301558 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This study is conducted to investigate the role of lncRNA urothelial carcinoma-associated 1 (UCA1) in the protection of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) through regulating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. PD rat model was induced by injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) to damage the substantia nigra striatum. The successfully modeled PD rats were introduced with siRNA-negative control (NC) or UCA1-siRNA. The expression of UCA1 in neurobehavioral change, neuroinflammatory response and oxidative stress of PD rats were explored. The effect of UCA1 on the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and downstream proteins IκBα and ERK was also investigated. The rats with PD exhibited aggregated neurobehavioral change, increased neuroinflammatory response and oxidative stress. Down-regulation of UCA1 up-regulated the expression of TH positive cells and DA content, reduced the apoptosis of substantia nigra neurons, the apoptosis of substantia nigra neurons and oxidative stress and improved the neuroinflammatory response in PD rats. Down-regulation of UCA1 inhibited the activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in substantia nigra of PD rats. Our study suggests that the downregulated lncRNA UCA1 ameliorates the damage of dopaminergic neurons, reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in PD rats through the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.
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7
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Hernandez-Baltazar D, Zavala-Flores L, Villanueva-Olivo A. The 6-hydroxydopamine model and parkinsonian pathophysiology: Novel findings in an older model. NEUROLOGÍA (ENGLISH EDITION) 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nrleng.2015.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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8
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6-Hydroxydopamine induces nuclear translocation of apoptosis inducing factor in nigral dopaminergic neurons in rat. Mol Cell Toxicol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13273-017-0034-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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9
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ER Stress Induced by Tunicamycin Triggers α-Synuclein Oligomerization, Dopaminergic Neurons Death and Locomotor Impairment: a New Model of Parkinson’s Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:5798-5806. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0114-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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10
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Nouraei N, Zarger L, Weilnau JN, Han J, Mason DM, Leak RK. Investigation of the therapeutic potential of N-acetyl cysteine and the tools used to define nigrostriatal degeneration in vivo. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 296:19-30. [PMID: 26879220 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The glutathione precursor N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) is currently being tested on Parkinson's patients for its neuroprotective properties. Our studies have shown that NAC can elicit protection in glutathione-independent manners in vitro. Thus, the goal of the present study was to establish an animal model of NAC-mediated protection in which to dissect the underlying mechanism. Mice were infused intrastriatally with the oxidative neurotoxicant 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA; 4 μg) and administered NAC intraperitoneally (100mg/kg). NAC-treated animals exhibited higher levels of the dopaminergic terminal marker tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the striatum 10d after 6-OHDA. As TH expression is subject to stress-induced modulation, we infused the tracer FluoroGold into the striatum to retrogradely label nigrostriatal projection neurons. As expected, nigral FluoroGold staining and cell counts of FluoroGold(+) profiles were both more sensitive measures of nigrostriatal degeneration than measurements relying on TH alone. However, NAC failed to protect dopaminergic neurons 3 weeks following 6-OHDA, an effect verified by four measures: striatal TH levels, nigral TH levels, nigral TH(+) cell counts, and nigral FluoroGold levels. Some degree of mild toxicity of FluoroGold and NAC was evident, suggesting that caution must be exercised when relying on FluoroGold as a neuron-counting tool and when designing experiments with long-term delivery of NAC--such as clinical trials on patients with chronic disorders. Finally, the strengths and limitations of the tools used to define nigrostriatal degeneration are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negin Nouraei
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Lauren Zarger
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Justin N Weilnau
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Jimin Han
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Daniel M Mason
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
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11
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Hernandez-Baltazar D, Zavala-Flores LM, Villanueva-Olivo A. The 6-hydroxydopamine model and parkinsonian pathophysiology: Novel findings in an older model. Neurologia 2015; 32:533-539. [PMID: 26304655 DOI: 10.1016/j.nrl.2015.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is widely used to induce models of Parkinson's disease (PD). We now know that the model induced by 6-OHDA does not include all PD symptoms, although it does reproduce the main cellular processes involved in PD, such as oxidative stress, neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and neuronal death by apoptosis. In this review we analyse the factors affecting the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons as well as the close relationships between neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and apoptosis in the 6-OHDA model. Knowledge of the mechanisms involved in neurodegeneration and cell death in this model is the key to identifying potential therapeutic targets for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Hernandez-Baltazar
- Cátedra CONACyT, Dirección Adjunta de Desarrollo Científico CONACyT, México, D. F., México; Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, México.
| | - L M Zavala-Flores
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica del Noreste, IMSS, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
| | - A Villanueva-Olivo
- Departamento de Histología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, México
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12
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Stott SRW, Barker RA. Time course of dopamine neuron loss and glial response in the 6-OHDA striatal mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 39:1042-1056. [PMID: 24372914 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) neurotoxic lesion of the midbrain dopamine (DA) system is one of the most widely used techniques for modelling Parkinson's disease in rodents. The majority of studies using this approach, however, largely limit their analysis to lesioning acutely, and looking at behavioural deficits and the number of surviving tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-stained cells in the midbrain. Here we have analysed additional characteristics that occur following intrastriatal delivery of 6-OHDA, providing better understanding of the neurodegenerative process. Female C57/Black mice were given lesions at 10 weeks old, and killed at several different time points postoperatively (3 and 6 h, 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 days). While the detrimental effect of the toxin on the TH+ fibres in the striatum was immediate, we found that the loss of TH+ dendritic fibres, reduction in cell size and intensity of TH expression, and eventual reduction in the number of TH+ neurons in the substantia nigra was delayed for several days post-surgery. We also investigated the expression of various transcription factors and proteins expressed by midbrain DA neurons following lesioning, and observed changes in the expression of Aldh1a1 (aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family, member A1) as the neurodegenerative process evolved. Extracellularly, we looked at microglia and astrocytes in reaction to the 6-OHDA striatal lesion, and found a delay in their response and proliferation in the substantia nigra. In summary, this work highlights aspects of the neurodegenerative process in the 6-OHDA mouse model that can be applied to future studies looking at therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon R W Stott
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
| | - Roger A Barker
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0PY, UK
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13
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Activation of GSK-3β and caspase-3 occurs in Nigral dopamine neurons during the development of apoptosis activated by a striatal injection of 6-hydroxydopamine. PLoS One 2013; 8:e70951. [PMID: 23940672 PMCID: PMC3733721 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rat model of Parkinson's disease is essential for a better understanding of the pathological processes underlying the human disease and for the evaluation of promising therapeutic interventions. This work evaluated whether a single striatal injection of 6-OHDA causes progressive apoptosis of dopamine (DA) neurons and activation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) and caspase-3 in the substantia nigra compacta (SNc). The loss of DA neurons was shown by three neuron markers; tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), NeuN, and β-III tubulin. Apoptosis activation was determined using Apostain and immunostaining against cleaved caspase-3 and GSK-3β pY216. We also explored the possibility that cleaved caspase-3 is produced by microglia and astrocytes. Our results showed that the 6-OHDA caused loss of nigral TH(+) cells, progressing mainly in rostrocaudal and lateromedial directions. In the neostriatum, a severe loss of TH(+) terminals occurred from day 3 after lesion. The disappearance of TH(+) cells was associated with a decrease in NeuN and β-III tubulin immunoreactivity and an increase in Apostain, cleaved caspase-3, and GSK-3β pY216 in the SNc. Apostain immunoreactivity was observed from days 3 to 21 postlesion. Increased levels of caspase-3 immunoreactivity in TH(+) cells were detected from days 1 to 15, and the levels then decreased to day 30 postlesion. The cleaved caspase-3 also collocated with microglia and astrocytes indicating its participation in glial activation. Our results suggest that caspase-3 and GSK-3β pY216 activation might participate in the DA cell death and that the active caspase-3 might also participate in the neuroinflammation caused by the striatal 6-OHDA injection.
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14
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Neurotoxin-based models of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2012; 211:51-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.10.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 360] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 10/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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15
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Peterson LJ, Flood PM. Oxidative stress and microglial cells in Parkinson's disease. Mediators Inflamm 2012; 2012:401264. [PMID: 22544998 PMCID: PMC3321615 DOI: 10.1155/2012/401264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant evidence has now been accumulated that microglial cells play a central role in the degeneration of DA neurons in animal models of PD. The oxidative stress response by microglial cells, most notably the activity of the enzyme NADPH oxidase, appears to play a central role in the pathology of PD. This oxidative stress response occurs in microglia through the activation of the ERK signaling pathway by proinflammatory stimuli, leading to the phosphorylation and translocation of the p47(phox) and p67(phox) cytosolic subunits, the activation of membrane-bound PHOX, and the production of ROS. Therapeutic anti-inflammatories which prevent DA neurodegeneration in PD, including anti-inflammatory cytokines, morphinan compounds, NADPH oxidase inhibitors, NF-κB inhibitors, and β2-AR agonists, all function to inhibit the activation of the PHOX in microglial cells. These observations suggest a central role for the oxidative stress response in microglial cells as a mediator or regulator of DA neurodegeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda J. Peterson
- North Carolina Oral Health Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB#7454, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7454, USA
| | - Patrick M. Flood
- North Carolina Oral Health Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB#7454, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7454, USA
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16
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Dissociation of progressive dopaminergic neuronal death and behavioral impairments by Bax deletion in a mouse model of Parkinson's diseases. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25346. [PMID: 22043283 PMCID: PMC3197195 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common, late-onset movement disorder with selective degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Although the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) has been used to induce progressive degeneration of DA neurons in various animal models of PD, the precise molecular pathway and the impact of anti-apoptotic treatment on this neurodegeneration are less understood. Following a striatal injection of 6-OHDA, we observed atrophy and progressive death of DA neurons in wild-type mice. These degenerating DA neurons never exhibited signs of apoptosis (i.e., caspase-3 activation and cytoplasmic release of cytochrome C), but rather show nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), a hallmark of regulated necrosis. However, mice with genetic deletion of the proapoptotic gene Bax (Bax-KO) exhibited a complete absence of 6-OHDA-induced DA neuron death and nuclear translocation of AIF, indicating that 6-OHDA-induced DA neuronal death is mediated by Bax-dependent AIF activation. On the other hand, DA neurons that survived in Bax-KO mice exhibited marked neuronal atrophy, without significant improvement of PD-related behavioral deficits. These findings suggest that anti-apoptotic therapy may not be sufficient for PD treatment, and the prevention of Bax-independent neuronal atrophy may be an important therapeutic target.
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Flood PM, Qian L, Peterson LJ, Zhang F, Shi JS, Gao HM, Hong JS. Transcriptional Factor NF-κB as a Target for Therapy in Parkinson's Disease. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2011; 2011:216298. [PMID: 21603248 PMCID: PMC3095232 DOI: 10.4061/2011/216298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative condition characterized by chronic inflammation. Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) is a family of inducible transcription factors that are expressed in a wide variety of cells and tissues, including microglia, astrocytes, and neurons, and the classical NF-κB pathway plays a key role in the activation and regulation of inflammatory mediator production during inflammation. Activation of the classical NF-κB pathway is mediated through the activity of the IKK kinase complex, which consists of a heterotrimer of IKKα, IKKβ, and IKKγ subunits. Targeting NF-κB has been proposed as an approach to the treatment of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, and the use of inhibitors specific for either IKKβ or IKKγ has now been found to inhibit neurodegeneration of TH+ DA-producing neurons in murine and primate models of Parkinson's disease. These studies suggest that targeting the classical pathway of NF-κB through the inhibition of the IKK complex can serve as a useful therapeutic approach to the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick M Flood
- Department of Periodontology and the Comprehensive Center for Inflammatory Disorders, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7454, USA
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Li Y, Luo F, Wei L, Liu Z, Xu P. Knockdown of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta attenuates 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells. Neurosci Lett 2010; 487:41-6. [PMID: 20920551 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.09.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Revised: 09/04/2010] [Accepted: 09/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) plays a critical role in signal transductions concerning neuronal death. In the present study, we investigated the potential role of GSK3β in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced toxicity in human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. We assessed the apoptotic proteins and the relative levels of pGSK3β (Ser9) and pGSK3β (Tyr216) to GSK3β in 6-OHDA-treated SH-SY5Y. Furthermore, we downregulated the expression of GSK3β by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) interference and compared the cell viability and expression of apoptotic proteins in knockdown group with those in control group under the treatment of 6-OHDA. We found that 6-OHDA increased the expression of caspase-3 and caspase-9 but not caspase-8. Additionally, 6-OHDA decreased the ratio of pGSK3β (Ser9)/GSK3β and increased the ratio of pGSK3β (Tyr216)/GSK3β. Moreover, 6-OHDA induced less cell viability loss and lower expression of caspase-9 and caspase-3 in GSK3β knockdown group compared with control. The present data indicate that 6-OHDA may induce apoptosis in SH-SY5Y via the intrinsic death pathway and GSK3β knockdown can partly attenuate 6-OHDA-induced neuronal death and apoptosis, suggesting that GSK3β may have the potential to serve as a therapeutic target for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, PR China
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Effects of calpain inhibition on dopaminergic markers and motor function following intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine administration in rats. Neuroscience 2008; 158:558-69. [PMID: 19007862 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2008] [Revised: 10/15/2008] [Accepted: 10/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine has been widely used to model aspects of Parkinson's disease in rodents, but the mechanisms underlying toxin-induced dopaminergic degeneration and functional impairment have not been fully elucidated. The main aim of the present study was to assess a possible role for calpains in neurochemical and behavioral deficits following unilateral infusion of intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine in adult rats. Toxin administration produced a profound dopaminergic denervation, as indicated by a 90-95% reduction in dopamine transporter radiolabeling measured in the caudate-putamen at 2 weeks post-lesion. Treatment with 6-hydroxydopamine also resulted in calpain activation in both caudate-putamen and substantia nigra, as measured by the appearance of calpain-specific spectrin breakdown products. Calpain activation peaked at 24 h after 6-hydroxydopamine infusion and remained elevated at later time points. In contrast, caspase-3-mediated spectrin cleavage subsided within 48 h in both brain areas. In a subsequent experiment, calpain inhibition was achieved by intrastriatal infusion of an adenovirus expressing the endogenous calpain inhibitor, calpastatin. Calpastatin delivery abolished the lesion-induced calpain-mediated spectrin cleavage and alleviated forelimb asymmetries resulting from unilateral intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine. Unexpectedly, dopamine transporter and tyrosine hydroxylase labeling revealed significant neuroprotection, not in the nigrostriatal pathway but rather in the ventral tegmental area. These findings support a role for calpain activation in 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. However, after near-total dopaminergic depletion, the primary benefit of calpain inhibition may not occur within the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway itself.
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