A Quality-by-Design Study for an Immediate-Release Tablet Platform: Examining the Relative Impact of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Properties, Processing Methods, and Excipient Variability on Drug Product Quality Attributes

A Rational Hierarchy to Capture Raw Material Attribute Variability in the Pharmaceutical Drug Product Development and Manufacturing Lifecycle

Assessing the robustness of a drug product formulation and manufacturing process to variations in raw material (RM) properties is an essential aspect of pharmaceutical product development. Motivated by the need to demonstrate understanding of attribute-performance relationships at the time of new product registration and for subsequent process maintenance, we review practices to explore RM variations. We describe limitations that can arise when active ingredients and excipients invariably undergo changes during a drug product lifecycle. Historical approaches, such as Quality-by-Design (QbD) experiments, are useful for initial evaluations but can be inefficient and cumbersome to maintain once commercial manufacturing commences. The relatively miniscule data sets accessible in product development - used to predict response to a hypothetical risk of variation - become less relevant as real-world experience of actual variability in the commercial landscape grows. Based on our observations of development and manufacturing, we instead propose a holistic framework exploiting a hierarchy of RM variability, and challenge this with common failure modes. By explicitly incorporating higher ranking RM variations as perturbations, material-conserving experiments are shown to provide powerful and enduring robustness data. Case studies illustrate how correctly contextualizing such data in formulation and process development can avoid the traps of historical QbD approaches and become valuable for evaluating changes occurring later in the drug product lifecycle.

Question-based review for pharmaceutical development: An enhanced quality approach

Over the last years, the pharmaceutical industry has faced real challenges regarding quality assurance. In this context, the establishment of more holistic approaches to the pharmaceutical development has been encouraged. The emergence of the Quality by Design (QbD) paradigm as systematic, scientific and risk-based methodology introduced a new concept of pharmaceutical quality. In essence, QbD can be interpreted as a strategy to maximize time and cost savings. An in-depth understanding of the formulation and manufacturing process is demanded to optimize the safety, efficacy and quality of a drug product at all stages of development. This innovative approach streamlines the pharmaceutical Research and Development (R&D) process, provides greater manufacturing flexibility and reduces regulatory burden. To assist in QbD implementation, International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) organized and launched QbD principles in their guidance for industry, identifying key concepts and tools to design and develop a high-quality drug product. Despite the undeniable advantages of the QbD approach, and the widespread information on QbD regulatory expectations, its full implementation in the pharmaceutical field is still limited. The present review aims to establish a crosswise overview on the current application status of QbD within the framework of the ICH guidelines (ICH Q8(R2) - Q14 and ICH Q2(R2)). Moreover, it outlines the way information gathered from the QbD methodology is being harmonized in Marketing Authorization Applications (MAAs) for European market approval. This work also highlights the challenges that hinder the deployment of the QbD strategy as a standard practice.

Greedy design space construction based on regression and latent space extraction for pharmaceutical development

Implementation of the design space (DS) is a scientific concept for ensuring quality to be submitted as a part of the regulatory filing of a drug product for approval to market. An empirical approach is constructing the DS based on the regression model whose inputs are process parameters and material attributes over the different unit operations, i.e., a high-dimensional statistical model. While the high-dimensional model assures quality and process flexibility through a comprehensive process understanding, it has difficulty visualizing the feasible range of input parameters, i.e., DS. Therefore, this study proposes a greedy approach to constructing the extensive and flexible low-dimensional DS based on the high-dimensional statistical model and the observed internal representations that satisfies both comprehensive process understanding and the DS visualization capability. Introducing the observed correlation structure enabled the dimensionality reduction of the DS. The non-critical controllable parameters were fixed to the target values in visualizing the low-dimensional DS as a function of critical parameters. The expected variation of non-critical non-controllable parameters was considered the source of variation in prediction. The case study demonstrated the proposed approach's usefulness for developing the pharmaceutical manufacturing process.

Synthesis of Celecoxib-Eutectic Mixture Particles via Supercritical CO2 Process and Celecoxib Immediate Release Tablet Formulation by Quality by Design Approach

Significant improvements in the wettability and dissolution rate of celecoxib (CEL), a poorly soluble selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor, have been shown by Huyn et al., 2019 by combining the binary pharmaceutical compositions including CEL and one of the two co-formers, adipic acid (ADI) and saccharin (SAC), into eutectic mixtures (EM). Purpose: In this study, we developed a therapeutic eutectic system for CEL which is a promising approach for oral delivery to enhance bioavailability. CEL EM were synthesized by novel techniques including supercritical CO₂ techniques and new tablet formulations were purposed. Methods: CEL EM were synthesized by evaporation crystallization method, spray drying, supercritical fluid (SCF) techniques. The CEL EM particles were then characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, powder X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, and particle size analysis. Dissolution studies were carried out. With a quality by design approach, a statistical method through design of experiment and data analysis by JMP^® (SAS institute) was applied to CEL EM immediate release tablet formulation development. Results: CEL EM produced by spray drying technique, supercritical fluid (SCF) techniques were identified and characterized. The enhancement of dissolution was observed for SCF processed samples. The design space for CEL-ADI EM IR tablet and control limits for individual parameters were determined.

Blend Segregation in Tablets Manufacturing and Its Effect on Drug Content Uniformity-A Review

Content uniformity (CU) of the active pharmaceutical ingredient is a critical quality attribute of tablets as a dosage form, ensuring reproducible drug potency. Failure to meet the accepted uniformity in the final product may be caused either by suboptimal mixing and insufficient initial blend homogeneity, or may result from further particle segregation during storage, transfer or the compression process itself. This review presents the most relevant powder segregation mechanisms in tablet manufacturing and summarizes the currently available, up-to-date research on segregation and uniformity loss at the various stages of production process—the blend transfer from the bulk container to the tablet press, filling and discharge from the feeding hopper, as well as die filling. Formulation and processing factors affecting the occurrence of segregation and tablets’ CU are reviewed and recommendations for minimizing the risk of content uniformity failure in tablets are considered herein, including the perspective of continuous manufacturing.

Critical Tools in Tableting Research: Using Compaction Simulator and Quality by Design (QbD) to Evaluate Lubricants' Effect in Direct Compressible Formulation

As commonly known, the product development stage is quite complex, requires intensive knowledge, and is time-consuming. The selection of the excipients with the proper functionality and their corresponding levels is critical to drug product performance. The objective of this study was to apply quality by design (QbD) principles for formulation development and to define the desired product quality profile (QTPP) and critical quality attributes (CQA) of a product. QbD is a risk- and science-based holistic approach for upgraded pharmaceutical development. In this study, Ibuprofen DC 85W was used as a model drug, Cellactose® 80 along with MicroceLac® 100 as a filler, and magnesium stearate, stearic acid, and sodium stearyl fumarate as lubricants. By applying different formulation parameters to the filler and lubricants, the QbD approach furthers the understanding of the effect of critical formulation and process parameters on CQAs and the contribution to the overall quality of the drug product. An experimental design study was conducted to determine the changes of the obtained outputs of the formulations, which were evaluated using the Modde Pro 12.1 statistical computer program that enables optimization by modeling complex relationships. The results of the optimum formulation revealed that MicroceLac® 100 was the superior filler, while magnesium stearate at 1% was the optimum lubricant. A design space that indicates the safety operation limits for the process and formulation variables was also created. This study enriches the understanding of the effect of excipients in formulation and assists in enhancing formulation design using experimental design and mathematical modeling methods in the frame of the QbD approach.

Tailoring immediate release FDM 3D printed tablets using a quality by design (QbD) approach

The aims of this work were to produce immediate release printed tablets using fused deposition modelling (FDM) technique and to systematically explore the effects of different compositions on drug release by Quality by Design approach. Screening studies of various drug loadings and excipients were conducted by hot melt extrusion and FDM printing to set up the appropriate limit of each independent factor (critical material attribute, CMA) in Design of Experiment. This study demonstrated that the use of polymeric mixture containing different theophylline loadings (10, 30 and 60% w/w) in combination with multiple pharmaceutical polymers (hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPC), Eudragit® EPO, Kollidon® VA 64) and disintegrant (sodium starch glycolate) were successfully hot melt-extruded and FDM printed with no plasticizer. Rheological measurement was performed to understand the critical process parameters (CPP) while the mechanical property of extrudable and printable filaments was investigated by 3-point test for the formulation development. Surprisingly, HPC were found to be superior as a flexibility modifier in all printable filaments. A range of pharmaceutical characterizations were examined to ensure the critical quality attributes (CQA). Characteristic dissolution profiles were obtained. D-optimal mixture design of 17 formulations suggested that theophylline release was considerably affected by the combined action of different excipients and could predict the optimum formulation with the required quality target product profile (QTPP) in pharmacopoeia (85% release at 30 min). Therefore, this can be a useful platform to develop immediate release products for a specific group of patients commercially.

Fipronil Tablets: Development and Pharmacokinetic Profile in Beagle Dogs

Increased human-pet interactions have led to concerns related to the prevention and treatment of ectoparasite infestations. Fipronil (FIP) is a widely used ectoparasiticide in veterinary medicine available for topical administration; however, its use may cause damage to the owners and the environment. The aim of the study was to develop immediate-release tablets of FIP, as well as to determine its pharmacokinetic properties after oral administration in beagle dogs. The prepared FIP tablets were evaluated for pre-compression (angle of repose, speed flow, and Carr's index) and post-compression (weight variation, friability, thickness, hardness, disintegration time, and dissolution rate) parameters. Orally administered FIP at a dose of 2 mg/kg was rapidly absorbed with C_máx of 3.13 ± 1.39 μg/mL at 1.83 ± 0.40 h post treatment (P.T.) and metabolized with 1.27 ± 1.04 μg/mL at 2.33 ± 0.82 h P.T. for fipronil sulfone (SULF) (the primary metabolite). The elimination of FIP and SULF occurred slowly and had maintained quantifiable plasma levels in the blood for up to 28 days P.T. The goal of the study is aligned with the concept of One Health, which aims to collaboratively achieve the best health for people, animals, and the environment. Therefore, the use of FIP tablets for the control of ectoparasites in dogs may be a safer alternative for owners and the environment.

Revisiting dispersible milk-drug tablets as a solid lipid formulation in the context of digestion

Oral delivery of dispersible tablets is a preferred route of administration for paediatrics due to ease of administration and dose control. Milk has gained interest as a drug delivery system due to its ability to dissolve poorly water-soluble drugs. There are no reports of milk tablet formulations being assessed in the context of lipid digestion, which is critical in influencing orally administered drug solubility and bioavailability. Milk-drug tablets were formulated by blending freeze-dried bovine milk or infant formula with the poorly water-soluble drug cinnarizine, which were directly compressed. Tablet strength, friability and dispersibility were quantified and synchrotron X-ray scattering was used to determine the lipid liquid crystalline phases formed during in vitro digestion of dispersed tablets and their effects on drug solubilisation. Tableting had a significant impact on the self-assembly of lipids in redispersed milk tablets whereas no effect was seen for infant formula tablets. Incorporation of the disintegrant poly(vinylpolypyrrolidone) to reduce tablet dispersion times promoted the formation of hexagonal liquid crystalline phases upon digestion but had minimal effect on drug solubilisation. These findings show that similar to the use of liquid milk, the formulation of milk-drug tablets can be used to improve solubilisation of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Multivariate analysis as a method to understand variability in a complex excipient, and its contribution to formulation performance

A key part of the Risk Assessment of excipients is to understand how raw material variability could (or does) contribute to differences in performance of the drug product. Here we demonstrate an approach which achieves the necessary understanding for a complex, functional, excipient. Multivariate analysis (MVA) of the certificates of analysis of an ethylcellulose aqueous dispersion (Surelease) formulation revealed low overall variability of the properties of the systems. Review of the scores plot to highlight batches manufactured using the same ethylcellulose raw material in the formulation, indicated that these batches tend to be more closely related than other randomly selected batches. This variability could result in potential differences in the quality of drug product lots made from these batches. Manufacture of a model drug product from Surelease batches coated using different lots of starting material revealed small differences in the release of a model drug, which could be detected by certain model dependent dissolution modeling techniques, but they were not observed when using model-independent techniques. This illustrates that the techniques are suitable for detecting and understanding excipient variability, but that, in this case, the product was still robust.

23 Full Factorial Model for Particle Size Optimization of Methotrexate Loaded Chitosan Nanocarriers: A Design of Experiments (DoE) Approach

Purpose

To build and inquire a statistically significant mathematical model for manufacturing methotrexate loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CsNP) of desired particle size. The study was also performed to evaluate the effect of formulation variables in the explored design space.

Method

Ionotropic gelation technique was followed for chitosan nanocarriers by changing formulation variables suggested as per Design Expert software. Altering the levels of Chitosan, tripolyphosphate, methotrexate by 2³ factorial design served the purpose. The CsNP were characterized for nanocarrier formation, particle size, and statistical analysis. Then mathematical model was statistically analyzed for fabricating desired formulation having particle size less than 200nm.

Results

FT-IR, XRD reports confirmed the structural change in chitosan which lead to the formation of CsNP. For particle size, linear model was found to be best fit to explain effect of variables. Besides, high R² (0.9958) defends the constancy of constructed model. Chitosan exhibited higher t-value in Pareto chart and a p-value <0.0001. Based on maximum desirability, optimization was performed and amount of variables for preparing CsNP of 180nm was predicted. The experiment was carried out with software suggested combination and particle size was found to be 176±4nm.

Conclusion

Low p-value endorsed the greater dominance of chitosan on particle size. Good model adequacy and small percentage error between predicted and experimented value established the reliability of constructed model for robust preparation of CsNP.

The strategic relevance of manufacturing technology: An overall quality concept to promote innovation preventing drug shortage

Manufacturing is the bridge between research and patient: without product, there is no clinical outcome. Shortage has a variety of causes, in this paper we analyse only causes related to manufacturing technology and we use shortage as a paradigm highliting the relevance of Pharmaceutical Technology. Product and process complexity and capacity issues are the main challenge for the Pharmaceutical Industry Supply chain. Manufacturing Technology should be acknowledged as a R&D step and as a very important matter during University degree in Pharmacy and related disciplines, promoting collaboration between Academia and Industry, measured during HTA step and rewarded in terms of price and reimbursement. The above elements are not yet properly recognised, and manufacturing technology is taken in to consideration only when a shortage is in place. In a previous work, Panzitta et al. proposed to perform a full technology assessment at the Health Technological Assessment stage, evaluating three main technical aspects of a medicine: manufacturing process, physicochemical properties, and formulation characteristics. In this paper, we develop the concept of manufacturing appraisal, providing a technical overview of upcoming challenges, a risk based approach and an economic picture of shortage costs. We develop also an overall quality concept, not limited to GMP factors but broaden to all elements leading to a robust supply and promoting technical innovation.

The role of ultrasound in pharmaceutical production: sonocrystallization

Objectives

The main aim of this review was to develop a critical discussion of the key role ultrasound (US) can play on the production of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) by discussing the versatile effect this type of energy produces.

Methods

The different crystallization techniques that can be assisted and improved by US are discussed in the light of the available US devices and the effect pursued by application of US energy. Simple and complex analytical methods to monitor API changes are also discussed.

Key findings

The countless achievements of API US-assisted production are summarized in a table, and outstanding effects such as narrower particle size distribution; decreased particle size, induction time, metastable zone and supersaturation levels; or a solubility increase are critically discussed.

Conclusions

The indisputable advantages of sonocrystallization over other ways of API production have been supported on multiple examples, and pending goals in this field (clarify the effect of US frequency on crystallization, know the mechanism of sonocrystallization, determine potential degradation owing to US energy, avoid calculation of the process yield by determining the concentration of the target drug remaining in the solution, etc.) should be achieved.

The Milky Way: paediatric milk-based dispersible tablets prepared by direct compression - a proof-of-concept study

OBJECTIVES

Dispersible tablets are proposed by the World Health Organization as the preferred paediatric formulation. It was hypothesised that tablets made from a powdered milk-base that disperse in water to form suspensions resembling milk might be a useful platform to improve acceptability in children.

METHODS

Milk-based dispersible tablets containing various types of powdered milk and infant formulae were formulated. The influence of milk type and content on placebo tablet properties was investigated using a design-of-experiments approach. Responses measured included friability, crushing strength and disintegration time. Additionally, the influence of compression force on the tablet properties of a model formulation was studied by compaction simulation.

KEY FINDINGS

Disintegration times increased as milk content increased. Compaction simulation studies showed that compression force influenced disintegration time. These results suggest that the milk content, rather than type, and compression force were the most important determinants of disintegration.

CONCLUSION

Up to 30% milk could be incorporated to produce 200 mg 10-mm flat-faced placebo tablets by direct compression disintegrating within 3 min in 5-10 ml of water, which is a realistic administration volume in children. The platform could accommodate 30% of a model active pharmaceutical ingredient (caffeine citrate).

Integrated Application of Quality-by-Design Principles to Drug Product Development: A Case Study of Brivanib Alaninate Film-Coated Tablets

Modern drug product development is expected to follow quality-by-design (QbD) paradigm. At the same time, although there are several issue-specific examples in the literature that demonstrate the application of QbD principles, a holistic demonstration of the application of QbD principles to drug product development and control strategy, is lacking. This article provides an integrated case study on the systematic application of QbD to product development and demonstrates the implementation of QbD concepts in the different aspects of product and process design for brivanib alaninate film-coated tablets. Using a risk-based approach, the strategy for development entailed identification of product critical quality attributes (CQAs), assessment of risks to the CQAs, and performing experiments to understand and mitigate identified risks. Quality risk assessments and design of experiments were performed to understand the quality of the input raw materials required for a robust formulation and the impact of manufacturing process parameters on CQAs. In addition to the material property and process parameter controls, the proposed control strategy includes use of process analytical technology and conventional analytical tests to control in-process material attributes and ensure quality of the final product.

The evolution and challenges for the international harmonization of the regulation of pharmaceutical excipients in Taiwan

Excipients, once considered an inert component, have been shown to greatly influence the characteristics of the drug product, such as quality and safety. Functionality-related characteristics of excipients could affect the performance of the drug product. Moreover, the impact of globalization has complicated the issue and made the supervision of supply chain highly important. Taiwan, a member of the Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention and Pharmaceutical Inspection Co-operation Scheme, makes efforts to harmonize with international regulations and to strengthen the protection of patients through regulatory controls. In order to improve the harmonization and the transparency of regulatory requirements, the aim of the present study was to investigate the regulatory framework and considerations of stringent regulatory authorities and to propose the draft regulatory requirements to the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration for jurisdiction. The proposal which was extensively discussed in the expert committee includes the regulatory considerations to ensure the safety and quality of the excipients and may serve as a platform to facilitate the communication with industries about the current thinking on related issues. Moreover, through the review of the recent guidelines published by the stringent regulatory authorities, the trend of the regulatory considerations was revealed and discussed.